A red water occurrence in drinking water distribution systems caused by changes in water source in Beijing, China: mechanism analysis and control measures

doi:10.1007/s11783-013-0558-4

Front.Environ.Sci.Eng.

0, Vol.

Issue () : 417-426 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-013-0558-4

RESEARCH ARTICLE

A red water occurrence in drinking water distribution systems caused by changes in water source in Beijing, China: mechanism analysis and control measures

ZHANG Xiaojian,MI Zilong,WANG Yang^1,²,LIU Shuming,NIU Zhangbin^1,³,LU Pinpin,WANG Jun,GU Junnong⁴,CHEN Chao^1,(

)

School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Beijing General Municipal Engineering Design and Research Institute, Beijing 100082, China
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction, Beijing 100037, China
Beijing Water Works Group, Beijing 100192, China

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Abstract

A red water phenomenon occurred in several communities few days after the change of water source in Beijing, China in 2008. In this study, the origin of this problem, the mechanism of iron release and various control measures were investigated. The results indicated that a significant increase in sulphate concentration as a result of the new water source was the cause of the red water phenomenon. The mechanism of iron release was found that the high-concentration sulphate in the new water source disrupted the stable shell of scale on the inner pipe and led to the release of iron compounds. Experiments showed that the iron release rate in the new source water within pipe section was over 11-fold higher than that occurring within the local source water. The recovery of tap water quality lasted several months despite ameliorative measures being implemented, including adding phosphate, reducing the overall proportion of the new water source, elevating the pH and alkalinity, and utilizing free chlorine as a disinfectant instead of chloramine. Adding phosphate was more effective and more practical than the other measures. The iron release rate was decreased after the addition of 1.5 mg·L^-1 orthophosphate- P, tripolyphosphate-P and hexametaphosphate-P by 68%, 83% and 87%, respectively. Elevating the pH and alkalinity also reduced the iron release rate by 50%. However, the iron release rate did not decreased after replacing chloramine by 0.5–0.8 mg·L^-1 of free chlorine as disinfectant.

Keywords iron release drinking water distribution system sulphate phosphate red water control water quality stability

Corresponding Author(s): CHEN Chao

Issue Date: 19 May 2014

Cite this article:

ZHANG Xiaojian,MI Zilong,WANG Yang, et al. A red water occurrence in drinking water distribution systems caused by changes in water source in Beijing, China: mechanism analysis and control measures[J]. Front.Environ.Sci.Eng., 0, (): 417-426.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-013-0558-4
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y0/V/I/417

Fig.1 Discolored tap water sourced in one apartment during the first flush in the morning

Fig.2 Overview of the customer complaints received in Beijing City regarding the red water occurrence

Tab.1

Tab.2

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of the pipe section reactor

Tab.3

Fig.4 Relationship between the Larson Ratio and the iron release rate. The percentage is the ratio of the new water source

Fig.5 Different layers of scale on the cast iron pipe. (a) Section plane of iron pipe scale; (b) SEM of shell-like layer of scale; (c) SEM of porous core of scale

Fig.6 Tap water quality during the water source switch

Note: The entire red water problem could be divided into the six stages listed below

The dash line in the figures indicates the criteria for total iron, turbidity and color according to the Drinking Water Standard of China.

Stage I: 90% new water source and 10% local water source; from Sep 27, 2008 to Oct 12, 2008

Stage II: 30% new water source and 70% local water source; from Oct 12, 2008 to Oct 18, 2008

Stage III: 20% new water source and 80% local water source; from Oct 18, 2008 to Nov 6, 2008

Stage IV: 20% new water source and 80% third water source; from Nov 6, 2008 to Nov 24, 2008

Stage V: 100% third water source; from Nov 24, 2008 to Dec 5, 2008

Stage VI: 20% new water source and 80% third water source; from Dec 5, 2008 to Jan 4, 2009

Fig.7 Effect of the addition of phosphate on iron release. The dose of orthophosphate, tripolyphosphate and hexametaphosphate (chain length, n = 12) was adjusted to provide 1.5 mg·L^-1 (calculated as P)

Fig.8 Effect of elevating pH and alkalinity on iron release. Elevation of the pH from 7.6 to 8.2 ± 0.1 was accomplished by adding 2 mol·L^-1 NaOH; the alkalinity was elevated from 135 to 260 mg·L^-1 (calculated as CaCO₃) by adding NaHCO₃

Fig.9 Effect of utilizing free chlorine as the disinfectant instead of chloramine on iron release. The concentration of free chlorine was maintained at 0.5-0.8 mg·L^-1

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