Please wait a minute...
Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering

ISSN 2095-2201

ISSN 2095-221X(Online)

CN 10-1013/X

Postal Subscription Code 80-973

2018 Impact Factor: 3.883

Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.    2020, Vol. 14 Issue (2) : 19    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1198-0
REVIEW ARTICLE
Upgrading pyrolytic carbon-blacks (CBp) from end-of-life tires: Characteristics and modification methodologies
Jiaxue Yu1,2, Junqing Xu1,2, Zhenchen Li1, Wenzhi He1,2, Juwen Huang1,2, Junshi Xu3, Guangming Li1,2()
1. State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
2. Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
3. Shanghai Tire Craftsman Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201400, China
 Download: PDF(1042 KB)   HTML
 Export: BibTeX | EndNote | Reference Manager | ProCite | RefWorks
Abstract

• Modification methodologies of upgrading CBp from ELTs were reviewed.

• Surface microstructures and physiochemical properties of CBp were analyzed.

• Future perspectives of ELTs pyrolysis industries were suggested.

Over 1 billion end-of-life tires (ELTs) are generating annually, and 4 billion ELTs are currently abandoned in landfills and stockpiles worldwide, according to the statistics, leading to the environmental and health risks. To circumvent these issues, pyrolysis, as an attractive thermochemical process, has been addressed to tackle the ELTs’ problem to reduce the risks as well as increase the material recycling. However, due to the lack of systematic characteristic analysis and modification methods, poor quality of CBp limits the improvement of ELTs pyrolysis in industry applications, which plays a crucial role in the economic feasibility of pyrolysis process. In this review, we have summarized the state-of-the-art characteristics and modification methodologies of the upgrading of CBp, to in-depth understand the surface microstructures and physiochemical properties of CBp for the foundation for modification afterwards. By virtue of the proper selection of modification methods and modifying agents, the new generation of multifunctional carbon materials with desired properties can be instead of the traditional materials of CB, promising broader and various application fields.

Keywords Pyrolysis carbon-blacks      CBp      Post-pyrolysis      Demineralization      Surface modification     
Corresponding Author(s): Guangming Li   
Issue Date: 17 December 2019
 Cite this article:   
Jiaxue Yu,Junqing Xu,Zhenchen Li, et al. Upgrading pyrolytic carbon-blacks (CBp) from end-of-life tires: Characteristics and modification methodologies[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2020, 14(2): 19.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-019-1198-0
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2020/V14/I2/19
Fig.1  Conventional approaches in ELTs management.
Fig.2  Scheme of tire pyrolysis.
Fig.3  Scheme of “core-shell structure” of CBp
Pyrolysis temperature
(°C)
Reactor type CBp
yield (wt%)
Elemental analysis on dry basis (wt%) Proximate analysis on as received basis (wt%) CV (MJ/kg) Sulfur in tire
(wt%)
Sulfur retention (%) BET surface (m2/g) Ref.
C H N S Ash Volatile matter Moisture Fixed carbon
600 Fixed bed 38.00 81.57 0.84 0.33 2.95 13.82 2.51 0.26 83.41 n.r 1.87 59.95 n.r Aylón et al. (2008)
600 Moving bed 38.00 82.10 0.97 0.35 3.41 13.17 3.50 1.24 82.09 n.r 1.87 69.29 n.r Aylón et al. (2008)
500 Fixed bed 36.10 85.18 1.15 0.64 2.03 13.25 n.r n.r n.r n.r 0.92 79.66 67.96 Zhang et al. (2008)
450 Fixed bed 40.00 88.00 1.70 0.30 1.10 8.40 7.10 n.r n.r 31.40a 1.70 25.88 n.r Napoli et al. (1997)
550 Fixed bed 35.00 89.40 0.30 0.10 0.80 7.70 3.50 n.r n.r 30.90 1.70 16.47 n.r Napoli et al. (1997)
600 Fixed bed 37.00 n.r n.r n.r n.r 16.30 5.20 0.00 78.50 27.20b 1.40 n.r n.r González et al. (2001)
550 Rotary kiln reactor 49.09 85.31 1.77 0.34 2.13 15.33 12.78 3.57 71.89 30.71 2.30 45.46 n.r Galvagno et al. (2002)
600 Rotary kiln reactor 47.40 85.56 1.33 0.28 2.32 13.19 10.75 3.01 76.06 30.18 2.30 47.81 n.r Galvagno et al. (2002)
680 Rotary kiln reactor 48.86 85.16 0.93 0.22 2.57 11.78 5.24 1.44 82.98 29.50 2.30 54.60 n.r Galvagno et al. (2002)
450 Fixed bed 40.00 95.9 0.70 0.10 3.30 16.00 3.10 1.50 79.50 28.60 1.90 69.47 n.r Díez et al. (2004)
550 Fixed bed 33.00 95.9 0.50 0.20 3.40 16.50 1.20 1.00 81.30 28.57 1.90 59.05 n.r Díez et al. (2004)
450 Rotary kiln reactor 43.90 82.13 2.10 0.54 2.28 12.51 16.61 3.40 67.47 31.20 1.51 66.29 89.10 Li et al. (2004)
500 Rotary kiln reactor 41.30 82.17 2.28 0.61 2.32 12.32 16.14 2.35 69.19 31.50 1.51 63.54 89.10 Li et al. (2004)
550 Rotary kiln reactor 39.90 80.82 1.46 0.53 2.41 14.58 6.92 1.28 77.22 30.00 1.51 63.68 89.10 Li et al. (2004)
600 Rotary kiln reactor 39.30 81.00 1.38 0.51 2.53 14.30 5.86 1.98 77.93 30.40 1.51 65.85 89.10 Li et al. (2004)
650 Rotary kiln reactor 38.80 81.03 1.98 0.45 2.40 13.94 6.27 1.48 78.32 30.10 1.51 61.67 89.10 Li et al. (2004)
Plasma pyrolysis 57.83 82.69 0.42 0.42 2.51 15.14 n.r n.r n.r n.r 1.57 92.35 64.80 Tang and Huang (2004)
Plasma pyrolysis 23.00 85.06 0.24 0.38 1.97 16.25 n.r n.r n.r n.r 1.57 28.86 70.00 Tang and Huang (2005)
500 Fixed bed 37.90 82.70 0.40 <0.10 2.20 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 69.50 Kyari et al. (2005)
550c Fixed bed 42.00 n.r n.r n.r 0.80 40.30 n.r n.r 56.30 14.80 1.71 19.65 55.50 Ucar et al. (2005)
650c Fixed bed 41.70 n.r n.r n.r 1.00 40.80 n.r n.r 56.20 15.70 1.71 24.39 60.50 Ucar et al. (2005)
800c Fixed bed 41.50 n.r n.r n.r 0.90 40.80 n.r n.r 55.90 15.20 1.71 21.84 63.50 Ucar et al. (2005)
550d Fixed bed 33.80 n.r n.r n.r 2.10 14.30 n.r n.r 82.40 33.90 1.44 49.29 56.50 Ucar et al. (2005)
650d Fixed bed 33.80 n.r n.r n.r 2.30 14.80 n.r n.r 82.60 33.40 1.44 53.99 63.50 Ucar et al. (2005)
800d Fixed bed 33.20 n.r n.r n.r 2.00 13.50 n.r n.r 84.30 34.20 1.44 46.11 66.00 Ucar et al. (2005)
550 Fixed bed 38.00 90.27 0.26 0.16 1.22 8.41 0.67 0.09 90.80 28.00 1.43 32.42 63.00 Munillo et al. (2006)
425 Spouted bed 35.36 86.19 1.25 0.45 3.06 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 2.00 54.10 61.10 Lopez et al. (2009)
500 Spouted bed 36.92 87.36 0.91 0.44 3.29 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 2.00 60.73 77.90 Lopez et al. (2009)
600 Spouted bed 38.30 87.24 0.73 0.39 3.37 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 2.00 64.54 84.10 Lopez et al. (2009)
425 Spouted bed 33.91 86.46 0.70 0.34 3.59 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 2.14 56.89 36.90 Lopez et al. (2009)
500 Spouted bed 34.05 86.62 1.39 0.75 2.24 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 2.14 35.64 65.20 Lopez et al. (2009)
600 Spouted bed 35.81 86.57 7.66 0.44 2.13 n.r n.r n.r n.r n.r 2.14 35.64 116.30 Lopez et al. (2009)
550 Fixed bed 34.00 86.30 0.30 0.30 2.80 12.50 1.80 0.40 91.30 29.70 1.90 50.11 64.00 López et al. (2011)
500 Fixed bed 39.00 87.35 1.05 0.24 2.70 8.24 n.r n.r n.r ~15b 1.38 76.30 n.r Kordoghli et al. (2017)
500 Spouted bed ~34.00 80.30 1.30 0.30 2.70 n.r n.r n.r n.r 29.3b 0.89 103.14 83.00 Olazar et al. (2008)
550 Fixed bed 36.50 n.r n.r n.r n.r 16.18 n.r n.r n.r n.r 1.40 n.r 69.23 Zhou et al. (2010)
400 Fixed bed 55.90 83.80 2.40 0.30 2.30 9.00 n.r n.r n.r 27.30 1.50 85.71 n.r Rodriguez et al. (2001)
500 Fixed bed 44.80 83.50 0.60 0.30 2.40 12.10 n.r n.r n.r 28.80 1.50 71.68 n.r Rodriguez et al. (2001)
600 Fixed bed 44.20 83.70 0.50 0.30 2.60 12.00 n.r n.r n.r 29.00 1.50 76.61 n.r Rodriguez et al. (2001)
700 Fixed bed 43.70 82.50 0.50 0.30 2.30 13.20 n.r n.r n.r 29.10 1.50 67.01 n.r Rodriguez et al. (2001)
500
0.3 kPa
Fixed bed 23.20 93.30 0.80 0.80 3.00 11.40 2.80 0.00 85.80 n.r 1.40 49.71 151.50 Roy et al. (1995)
n.r n.r n.r 87.80 0.33 n.r 1.97 9.61 0.88 0.25 89.26 n.r n.r n.r 62.00 Murillo et al. (2005)
550 Fixed bed n.r 81.50 1.00 0.50 3.30 13.80 3.50 0.70 82.10 29.40 1.90 n.r 37.00 López et al. (2013)
500
20kPa
Fixed bed 25.00 80.40 0.40 0.70 3.60 14.60 3.22 0.41 82.18 n.r 1.40 64.29 n.r Mchoul et al. (1996)
N-234 94.80 0.80 0.80 0.60 0.60 4.20 0.00 95.20 n.r n.r n.r 112.70 Roy et al. (1995)
N-330 96.00 0.70 0.60 0.70 0.30 3.30 0.00 96.40 n.r n.r n.r 80.50 Roy et al. (1995)
Tab.1  Elemental, proximate and calorific value of the CBp reported in literature.
Fig.4  Flow chart of acid-base demineralization.
Material Demineralization medium Medium usage (mL/g) Demineralization Temperature (°C) Demineralization Time (h) Demineralization Method Ash removal (%w/w) Sulfur
removal (%w/w)
BET(m2/g) BET
Incerased %
Ref.
CBp 0.5M H2SO4 + 5M NaOH 10 in H2SO4/10 in NaOH 60 0.5 in H2SO4 + 0.5 in NaOH Vigorous stirring 79.04 36.11 64.8 n.r Mchoul et al. (1996)
CBp at 550°Ca 4M HCl+ 5M NaOH 10 in HCl/10 in NaOH 60 1 in HCl+ 1 in NaOH Stirring 79.33 70.37 n.r n.r Martínez et al. (2019)
CBp at 500°Ca 20wt% HNO3 15 80 1 Vigorous stirring 53.52 n.r 88.62 28.00 (Zhou et al. (2006)
CBp at 400°Ca 0.5M HNO3 10 Boiling point of HNO3 24 Stirring 30.99 n.r n.r n.r Alexandrefranco et al. (2010)
CBp at 800°Ca 10wt% HCl n.r 100 2 n.r 68.97 n.r 72.2 8.59 Ucar et al. (2005)
CBp at 450°Ca 1M HCl n.r r.t 24 n.r n.r 65.38 870 923.53 (Shah et al. (2006)
50% tires+ 50% plastics 1M HCl 100 60 1 Stirring 64 n.r n.r n.r Bernardo et al. (2012)
CBp at 410°Ca 1M HCl n.r r.t 2 Gently stirring n.r 60.86 n.r n.r Sugatri et al. (2018)
CBp at 550°Ca 4M HCl 10 60 1 Stirring 67.33 59.26 76.3 5.39 Martínez et al. (2019)
Tire-derived fuel(TDF) 37wt% HCl+ 65wt% HNO3 20 175 0.17 Microwave5400W 54.20 87.13 185 76.19 Banar et al. (2015)
CBp at 650°Ca 4M HCl
40 wt % HF
10 in HCl+ 2 in HF 60 in HCl+ 25 in HF 6 in HCl+ 5 in HF Ultrasonic 200W 40khz 98.33 70.16 92.10 n.r Zhang et al. (2018)
Tab.2  Literature survey in related to improvement of CBp by demineralization process
Fig.5  The “closed loop  tyre-to-tyre recycling” of tires.
1 J Aguado, D P Serrano, J M Escola (2008). Fuels from waste plastics by thermal and catalytic processes: A review. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 47(21): 7982–7992
2 R Aguado, M Olazar, D Vélez, M Arabiourrutia, J Bilbao (2005). Kinetics of scrap tyre pyrolysis under fast heating conditions. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 73(2): 290–298
3 G Akovali, I Ulkem (1999). Some performance characteristics of plasma surface modified carbon black in the (SBR) matrix. Polymer, 40(26): 7417–7422
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(99)00094-4
4 M Alexandre-Franco, C Fernández-González, M Alfaro-Domínguez, J M Palacios Latasa, V Gómez-Serrano (2010). Devulcanization and demineralization of used tire rubber by thermal chemical methods: a study by x-ray diffraction. Energy & Fuels, 24(6): 3401–3409
5 N Antoniou, A Zabaniotou (2018). Re-designing a viable ELTs depolymerization in circular economy: Pyrolysis prototype demonstration at TRL 7, with energy optimization and carbonaceous materials production. Journal of Cleaner Production, 174: 74–86
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.319
6 P Ariyadejwanich, W Tanthapanichakoon, K Nakagawa, S R Mukai, H Tamon (2003). Preparation and characterization of mesoporous activated carbon from waste tires. Carbon, 41(1): 157–164
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6223(02)00267-1
7 ETRMA Association (2015). End-of-life Tyre Report 2015. 2015 Edition
8 A Atal, Y A Levendis (1995). Comparison of the combustion behaviour of pulverized waste tyres and coal. Fuel, 74(11): 1570–1581
9 M Atif, R Bongiovanni, M Giorcelli, E Celasco, A Tagliaferro (2013). Modification and characterization of carbon black with mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane. Applied Surface Science, 286: 142–148
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.09.037
10 E Aylón, A Fernández-Colino, M V Navarro, R Murillo, T García, A M Mastral (2008). Waste tire pyrolysis: comparison between fixed bed reactor and moving bed reactor. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 47(12): 4029–4033
https://doi.org/10.1021/ie071573o
11 J Bae, J Jang, S-H Yoon (2002). Cure behavior of the liquid-crystalline epoxy/carbon nanotube system and the effect of surface treatment of carbon fillers on cure reaction. Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 203(15): 2196–2204
https://doi.org/10.1002/1521-3935(200211)203:15<2196::AID-MACP2196>3.0.CO;2-U
12 M Banar, A Ozkan, V Akyildiz, Z Cokaygil, O Onay (2015). Evaluation of solid product obtained from tire-derived fuel (TDF) pyrolysis as carbon black. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 17(1): 125–134
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-014-0233-2
13 S Bandyopadhyay, P P De, D K Tripathy, S K De (1996). Influence of surface oxidation of carbon black on its interaction with nitrite rubbers. Polymer, 37(2): 353–357
https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(96)81110-4
14 J A Belmont, R M Amici, C P Galloway (1998). Reaction of carbon black with diazonium salts, resultant carbon black products and their uses. Google Patents
15 J A Belmont, R M Amici, C P Galloway (1999). Reaction of carbon black with diazonium salts, resultant carbon black products and their uses. Google Patents
16 J A Belmont, R M Amici, C P Galloway (2000). Reaction of carbon black with diazonium salts, resultant carbon black products and their uses. Google Patents
17 J A Belmont, R M Amici, C P Galloway (2002). Reaction of carbon black with diazonium salts, resultant carbon black products and their uses. Google Patents
18 J A Belmont, R M Amici, C P Galloway (2004). Reaction of carbon black with diazonium salts, resultant carbon black products and their uses. Google Patents
19 B Benallal, C Roy, H Pakdel, S Chabot, M J F Poirier (1995). Characterization of pyrolytic light naphtha from vacuum pyrolysis of used tyres comparison with petroleum naphtha. Fuel, 74(11): 1589–1594
20 M Bernardo, N Lapa, M Gonçalves, B Mendes, F Pinto (2012). Study of the organic extraction and acidic leaching of chars obtained in the pyrolysis of plastics, tire rubber and forestry biomass wastes. Procedia Engineering, 42: 1739–1746
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.07.567
21 M Boota, M P Paranthaman, A K Naskar, Y Li, K Akato, Y Gogotsi (2015). Waste tire derived carbon-polymer composite paper as pseudocapacitive electrode with long cycle life. ChemSusChem, 8(21): 3576–3581
https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201500866 pmid: 26404735
22 D W Brazier, N V Schwartz (1978). The effect of heating rate on the thermal degradation of polybutadiene. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 22(1): 113–124
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1978.070220109
23 N Cardona, F Campuzano, M Betancur, L Jaramillo, J D Martínez (2018). Possibilities of carbon black recovery from waste tyre pyrolysis to be used as additive in rubber goods: A review. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 437: 012012
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/437/1/012012
24 F Cataldo (1999). Carbon black nitration and nitrosation and its application to improve the mechanical hysteresis of a rubber tread compound. Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie, 270(1): 81–86
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1522-9505(19990901)270:1<81::AID-APMC81>3.0.CO;2-N
25 W Chen, H Feng, D Shen, Y Jia, N Li, X Ying, T Chen, Y Zhou, J Guo, M Zhou (2018). Carbon materials derived from waste tires as high-performance anodes in microbial fuel cells. Science of the Total Environment, 618: 804–809
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.201 pmid: 29046230
26 X Cheng, P Song, X Zhao, Z Peng, S Wang (2018). Liquefaction of ground tire rubber at low temperature. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 71: 301–310
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.10.004 pmid: 29050974
27 J A Conesa, R Font, A Marcilla (1997). Mass spectrometry validation of a kinetic model for the thermal decomposition of tyre wastes. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 43(1): 83–96
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(97)00057-0
28 A M Cunliffe, P T Williams (1998). Composition of oils derived from the batch pyrolysis of tyres. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 44(2): 131–152
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(97)00085-5
29 A M Cunliffe, P T Williams (1999). Influence of process conditions on the rate of activation of chars derived from pyrolysis of used tires. Energy & Fuels, 13(1): 166–175
https://doi.org/10.1021/ef9801524
30 J D Martínez, N Puy, R Murillo, T García, M V Navarro, A M Mastral. (2013). Waste tyre pyrolysis: A review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 23: 179–213
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.02.038
31 G I Danmaliki, T A Saleh (2016). Influence of conversion parameters of waste tires to activated carbon on adsorption of dibenzothiophene from model fuels. Journal of Cleaner Production, 117: 50–55
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.01.026
32 C Díez, O Martínez, L F Calvo, J Cara, A Morán (2004). Pyrolysis of tyres. Influence of the final temperature of the process on emissions and the calorific value of the products recovered. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 24(5): 463–469
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2003.11.006 pmid: 15120430
33 W B Ding, L Wang, Q Yang, W D Xiang, J M Gao, W A Amer (2013). Recent research progress on polymer grafted carbon black and its novel applications. International Polymer Processing, 28(2): 132–142
https://doi.org/10.3139/217.2678
34 J A Fairburn, L A Behie, W Y Svrcek (1990). Ultrapyrolysis of n-hexadecane in a novel micro-reactor. Fuel, 69(12): 1537–1545
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(90)90203-3
35 S Galvagno, S Casu, T Casabianca, A Calabrese, G Cornacchia (2002). Pyrolysis process for the treatment of scrap tyres: preliminary experimental results. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 22(8): 917–923
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-053X(02)00083-1 pmid: 12423055
36 J F González, J M Encinar, J L Canito, J J Rodrı́Guez (2001). Pyrolysis of automobile tyre waste. Influence of operating variables and kinetics study. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 58-59: 667–683
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(00)00201-1
37 V K Gupta, B Gupta, A Rastogi, S Agarwal, A Nayak (2011a). A comparative investigation on adsorption performances of mesoporous activated carbon prepared from waste rubber tire and activated carbon for a hazardous azo dye—Acid Blue 113. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186(1): 891–901
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.091 pmid: 21163571
38 V K Gupta, B Gupta, A Rastogi, S Agarwal, A Nayak (2011b). Pesticides removal from waste water by activated carbon prepared from waste rubber tire. Water Research, 45(13): 4047–4055
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.05.016 pmid: 21664639
39 R Helleur, N Popovic, M Ikura, M Stanciulescu, D Liu (2001). Characterization and potential applications of pyrolytic char from ablative pyrolysis of used tires. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 58-59: 813–824
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(00)00207-2
40 I Iraola-Arregui, P Van Der Gryp, J F Görgens (2018). A review on the demineralisation of pre- and post-pyrolysis biomass and tyre wastes. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 79: 667–688
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.08.034 pmid: 30343799
41 L C Jia, Y K Li, D X Yan (2017). Flexible and efficient electromagnetic interference shielding materials from ground tire rubber. Carbon, 121: 267–273
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2017.05.100
42 M S Karmacharya, V K Gupta, I Tyagi, S Agarwal, V K Jha (2016). Removal of As(III) and As(V) using rubber tire derived activated carbon modified with alumina composite. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 216: 836–844
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2016.02.025
43 S Kordoghli, B Khiari, M Paraschiv, F Zagrouba, M Tazerout (2017). Impact of different catalysis supported by oyster shells on the pyrolysis of tyre wastes in a single and a double fixed bed reactor. Waste Management, 67: 288–297
44 R Kumar, M O Ansari, M A Barakat (2013). DBSA doped polyaniline/multi-walled carbon nanotubes composite for high efficiency removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution. Chemical Engineering Journal, 228: 748–755
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.05.024
45 M Kyari, A Cunliffe, P T Williams (2005). Characterization of oils, gases, and char in relation to the pyrolysis of different brands of scrap automotive tires. Energy & Fuels, 19(3): 1165–1173
https://doi.org/10.1021/ef049686x
46 W H Lee, J Y Kim, Y K Ko, P J Reucroft, J W Zondlo (1999). Surface analysis of carbon black waste materials from tire residues. Applied Surface Science, 141(1): 107–113
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-4332(98)00600-X
47 Q Li, F Li, A Meng, Z Tan, Y Zhang (2018). Thermolysis of scrap tire and rubber in sub/super-critical water. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 71: 311–319
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.10.017 pmid: 29102354
48 S Li, C Wan, S Wang, Y Zhang (2016). Separation of core-shell structured carbon black nanoparticles from waste tires by light pyrolysis. Composites Science and Technology, 135: 13–20
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2016.09.009
49 S Li, C Wan, X Wu, S Wang (2016b). Core-shell structured carbon nanoparticles derived from light pyrolysis of waste tires. Polymer Degradation & Stability, 129: 192–198
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2016.04.013
50 S Q Li, Q Yao, Y Chi, J H Yan, K F Cen (2004). Pilot-scale pyrolysis of scrap tires in a continuous rotary kiln reactor. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 43(17): 5133–5145
https://doi.org/10.1021/ie030115m
51 W Li, Z Xie, Z Li (2001). Synthesis, characterization of polyacrylate-g-carbon black and its application to soap-free waterborne coating. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 81(5): 1100– 1106
52 F A López, T A Centeno, F J Alguacil, B Lobato (2011). Distillation of granulated scrap tires in a pilot plant. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 190(1-3): 285–292
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.03.039 pmid: 21493004
53 F A López, T A Centeno, O Rodríguez, E J Alguacil (2013). Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from the char produced in the thermolysis of granulated scrap tyres. J Air Waste Manag Assoc, 63(5): 534–544
https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2013.763870 pmid: 23786145
54 G Lopez, M Olazar, M Amutio, R Aguado, J Bilbao (2009). Influence of tire formulation on the products of continuous pyrolysis in a conical spouted bed reactor. Energy & Fuels, 23(11): 5423–5431
https://doi.org/10.1021/ef900582k
55 A K Manna, P P De, D K Tripathy, S K De (1998). Hysteresis and strain-dependent dynamic mechanical properties of epoxidized natural rubber filled with surface-oxidized carbon black. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 70(4): 723–730
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19981024)70:4<723::AID-APP12>3.0.CO;2-Y
56 A K Manna, P P De, D K Tripathy, S K De, M K Chatterjee (1997). Chemical interaction between surface oxidized carbon black and epoxidized natural rubber. Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 70(4): 624–633
https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3538448
57 J D Martínez, N Cardona-Uribe, R Murillo, T García, J M López (2019). Carbon black recovery from waste tire pyrolysis by demineralization: Production and application in rubber compounding. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 85: 574–584
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.01.016 pmid: 30803613
58 T Mathew, R N Datta, W K Dierkes, A G Talma, W J Van Ooij, J W M Noordermeer (2011). Plasma polymerization surface modification of carbon black and its effect in elastomers. 296(1): 42–52
59 A Chaala, H Darmstadt, C Roy (1996). Acid-base method for the demineralization of pyrolytic carbon black. Fuel Processing Technology, 46(1): 1–15
https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3820(95)00044-5
60 A I Medalia, G Kraus (1994). Science and Technology of Rubber, 2nd ed.. Mark J E, Erman B, Eirich F R,eds. San Diego: Academic Press, 387–418
61 A A Merchant, M A Petrich (1993). Pyrolysis of scrap tires and conversion of chars to activated carbon. AIChE Journal, 39(8): 1370–1376
https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690390814
62 Z Mikulova, I Sedenkova, L Matejova, M Večeř, V Dombek (2013). Study of carbon black obtained by pyrolysis of waste scrap tyres. Journal of thermal analysis and calorimetry, 111(2): 1475–1481
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-012-2340-4
63 E L K Mui, W H Cheung, G McKay (2010). Tyre char preparation from waste tyre rubber for dye removal from effluents. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 175(1-3): 151–158
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.142 pmid: 19854570
64 R Murillo, E Aylón, M V Navarro, M S Callén, A Aranda, A M Mastral (2006). The application of thermal processes to valorise waste tyre. Fuel Processing Technology, 87(2): 143–147
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2005.07.005
65 F Murena, E Garufi, F Gioia (1996). Hydrogenative pyrolysis of waste tyres: Kinetic analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 50(2): 143–156
https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3894(96)01792-X
66 R Murillo, M V Navarro, T García, J M López, M S Callén, E Aylón, A M Mastral (2005). Production and application of activated carbons made from waste tire. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 44(18): 7228–7233
https://doi.org/10.1021/ie050506w
67 M Nakahara, T Takada, H Kumagai, Y Sanada (1995). Surface chemistry of carbon black through curing process of epoxy resin. Carbon, 33(11): 1537–1540
https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-6223(95)00099-Y
68 A Namane, A Mekarzia, K Benrachedi, N Belhaneche-Bensemra, A Hellal (2005). Determination of the adsorption capacity of activated carbon made from coffee grounds by chemical activation with ZnCl2 and H3PO4. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 119(1-3): 189–194
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.12.006 pmid: 15752865
69 A Napoli, Y Soudais, D Lecomte, S Castillo (1997). Scrap tyre pyrolysis: Are the effluents valuable products? Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 40-41: 373–382
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(97)00011-9
70 M R Nunes, G M Perez, L F Loguercio, E W Alves, N L V Carreño, J L Martins, I T S Garcia (2011). Active carbon preparation from treads of tire waste for dye removal in waste water. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 22: 2027–2035
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-50532011001100002
71 M Olazar, R Aguado, M Arabiourrutia, G Lopez, A Barona, J Bilbao (2008). Catalyst effect on the composition of tire pyrolysis products. Energy & Fuels, 22(5): 2909–2916
https://doi.org/10.1021/ef8002153
72 D Pantea, H Darmstadt, S Kaliaguine, C Roy (2003). Heat-treatment of carbon blacks obtained by pyrolysis of used tires. Effect on the surface chemistry, porosity and electrical conductivity. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 67(1): 55–76
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(02)00017-7
73 A R Payne (1966). Effect of dispersion on dynamic properties of filler-loaded rubbers. Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 39(2): 365–374
https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3544848
74 A R Payne (1967). Dynamic properties of PBNA–natural rubber vulcanizates. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 11(3): 383–387
https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1967.070110306
75 A Pazat, C Barrès, F Bruno, C Janin, E Beyou (2018). Preparation and properties of elastomer composites containing “graphene”-based fillers: A review. Polymer Reviews, 58(3): 403–443
https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2017.1403446
76 N Probst, E Grivei, F Fabry, L Fulcheri, G Flamant, X Bourrat, A Schroder (2002). Quality and performance of carbon blacks from plasma process. Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 75(5): 891–906
https://doi.org/10.5254/1.3547690
77 I De Marco Rodriguez, M F Laresgoiti, M A Cabrero, A Torres, M J Chomón, B Caballero (2001). Pyrolysis of scrap tyres. Fuel Processing Technology, 72(1): 9–22
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3820(01)00174-6
78 C Roy, A Chaala, H Darmstadt (1999). The vacuum pyrolysis of used tires. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 51(1): 201–221
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(99)00017-0
79 C Roy, A Chaala, H Darmstadt, B De Caumia, H Pakdel, J Yang (2005). Rubber Recycling.   Boca Raton: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Florida, 458–499
80 C Roy, A Rastegar, S Kaliaguine, H Darmstadt, V Tochev (1995). Physicochemical properties of carbon-blacks from vacuum pyrolysis of used tires. Plastics, Rubber and Composites Processing and Applications, 23(1): 21–30
81 B Sahouli, S Blacher, F Brouers, H Darmstadt, C Roy, S Kaliaguine (1996a). Surface morphology and chemistry of commercial carbon black and carbon black from vacuum pyrolysis of used tyres. Fuel, 75(10): 1244–1250
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(96)00034-8
82 B Sahouli, S Blacher, F Brouers, R Sobry, G Van Den Bossche, B Diez, H Darmstadt, C Roy, S Kaliaguine (1996). Surface morphology of commercial carbon blacks and carbon blacks from pyrolysis of used tyres by small-angle X-ray scattering. Carbon, 34(5): 633–637
https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-6223(96)00017-6
83 T A Saleh, V K Gupta, A A Al-Saadi (2013). Adsorption of lead ions from aqueous solution using porous carbon derived from rubber tires: Experimental and computational study. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 396: 264–269
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2013.01.037 pmid: 23433519
84 O Senneca, P Salatino, R Chirone (1999). A fast heating-rate thermogravimetric study of the pyrolysis of scrap tyres. Fuel, 78(13): 1575–1581
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(99)00087-3
85 J Shah, M R Jan, F Mabood, M Shahid (2006). Conversion of waste tyres into carbon black and their utilization as adsorbent. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society, 53(5): 1085–1089
https://doi.org/10.1002/jccs.200600144
86 Y R Smith, D Bhattacharyya, T Willhard, M Misra (2016). Adsorption of aqueous rare earth elements using carbon black derived from recycled tires. Chemical Engineering Journal, 296: 102–111
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.03.082
87 P Song, C Wan, Y Xie, K Formela, S Wang (2018a). Vegetable derived-oil facilitating carbon black migration from waste tire rubbers and its reinforcement effect. Waste Management, 78: 238–248
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.05.054
88 P Song, C Wan, Y Xie, Z Zhang, S Wang (2018b). Stepwise exfoliation of bound rubber from carbon black nanoparticles and the structure characterization. Polymer Testing, 71: 115–124
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2018.08.032
89 P Song, X Zhao, X Cheng, S Li, S Wang (2018c). Recycling the nanostructured carbon from waste tires. Composites Communications, 7: 12–15
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2017.12.001
90 X H Song, R Xu, A Lai, H L Lo, F L Neo, K Wang (2012). Preparation and characterization of mesoporous activated carbons from waste tyre. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 7(3): 474–478
https://doi.org/10.1002/apj.544
91 K Subulan, A S Taşan, A Baykasoğlu (2015). Designing an environmentally conscious tire closed-loop supply chain network with multiple recovery options using interactive fuzzy goal programming. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 39(9): 2661–2702
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2014.11.004
92 R I Sugatri, Y C Wirasadewa, K E Saputro, E Y Muslih, R Ikono, M Nasir (2018). Recycled carbon black from waste of tire industry: thermal study. Microsystem Technologies, 24(1): 749–755
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00542-017-3397-6
93 X Sun, J Liu, J Hong, B Lu (2016). Life cycle assessment of Chinese radial passenger vehicle tire. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 21(12): 1749–1758
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1139-0
94 I Sutherland, E Sheng, R Bradley, P Freakley (1996). Effects of ozone oxidation on carbon black surfaces. Journal of Materials Science, 31(21): 5651–5655
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01160810
95 L Tang, H Huang (2004). An investigation of sulfur distribution during thermal plasma pyrolysis of used tires. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 72(1): 35–40
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2004.02.001
96 L Tang, H Huang (2005). Thermal plasma pyrolysis of used tires for carbon black recovery. Journal of Materials Science, 40(14): 3817–3819
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-2552-0
97 W Tanthapanichakoon, P Ariyadejwanich, P Japthong, K Nakagawa, S R Mukai, H Tamon (2005). Adsorption-desorption characteristics of phenol and reactive dyes from aqueous solution on mesoporous activated carbon prepared from waste tires. Water Research, 39(7): 1347–1353
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.12.044 pmid: 15862334
98 B S Thomas, R C Gupta (2016). A comprehensive review on the applications of waste tire rubber in cement concrete. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54: 1323–1333
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.092
99 N Tsubokawa (1992). Functionalization of carbon black by surface grafting of polymers. Progress in Polymer Science, 17(3): 417–470
https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6700(92)90021-P
100 S Ucar, S Karagoz, A R Ozkan, J Yanik (2005). Evaluation of two different scrap tires as hydrocarbon source by pyrolysis. Fuel, 84(14–15): 1884–1892
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2005.04.002
101 K Varaprasad, B S Diwakar, C Donoso, K Ramam, R Sadiku (2017). Metal-oxide polymer nanocomposite films from disposable scrap tire powder/poly-epsilon-caprolactone for advanced electrical energy (capacitor) applications. Journal of Cleaner Production, 161: 888–895
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.002
102 A Wang (2012). Bigger, better, broader: A perspective on China’s auto market in 2020. Hong Kong: McKinsey&Company
103 WBCSD (2008). Managing End-of-Life Tires
104 P T Williams, S Besler (1995). Pyrolysis-thermogravimetric analysis of tyres and tyre components. Fuel, 74(9): 1277–1283
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(95)00083-H
105 P T Williams, S Besler, D T Taylor (1990). The pyrolysis of scrap automotive tyres. Fuel, 69(12): 1474–1482
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(90)90193-T
106 P T Williams, S Besler, D T Taylor, R P Bottrill (1995). Pyrolysis of automotive tyre waste. Journal of the Institute of Energy, 68(474): 11–21
107 P T Williams, R P Bottrill (1995). Sulfur-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in tyre pyrolysis oil. Fuel, 74(5): 736–742
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(94)00005-C
108 P T Williams, R P Bottrill, A M Cunliffe (1998). Combustion of tyre pyrolysis oil. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 76(4): 291–301
https://doi.org/10.1205/095758298529650
109 P T Williams, D T Taylor (1993). Aromatization of tyre pyrolysis oil to yield polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Fuel, 72(11): 1469–1474
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(93)90002-J
110 Z Y Wu, C Ma, Y L Bai, Y S Liu, S F Wang, X Wei, K X Wang, J S Chen (2018). Rubber-based carbon electrode materials derived from dumped tires for efficient sodium-ion storage. Dalton transactions (Cambridge, England: 2003), 47(14): 4885–4892
https://doi.org/10.1039/C8DT00504D pmid: 29546260
111 S Xu, D Lai, X Zeng, L Zhang, Z Han, J Cheng, R Wu, O Mašek, G Xu (2018). Pyrolysis characteristics of waste tire particles in fixed-bed reactor with internals. Carbon Resources Conversion, 1(3): 228–237
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crcon.2018.10.001
112 J Yan, D Yan, Y Chi, Y Pei, M Ni, K Ce (2006). Porosity and surface chemistry properties of carbon blacks from pyrolysis of used tires in a pilot-scale rotary kiln. Journal of Zhejiang University (Engineering Science), 40(10): 1805–1810 (in Chinese)
113 E Yazdani, S H Hashemabadi, A Taghizadeh (2019). Study of waste tire pyrolysis in a rotary kiln reactor in a wide range of pyrolysis temperature. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 85: 195–201
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.12.020 pmid: 30803573
114 J J Yuan, R Y Hong, Y Q Wang, W G Feng (2014). Low-temperature plasma preparation and application of carbon black nanoparticles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 253: 107–120
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2014.05.043
115 A A Zabaniotou, G Stavropoulos (2003). Pyrolysis of used automobile tires and residual char utilization. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 70(2): 711–722
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(03)00042-1
116 C Zhang, T Liu, X Lu (2010). Facile fabrication of polystyrene/carbon nanotube composite nanospheres with core-shell structure via self-assembly. Polymer, 51(16): 3715–3721
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2010.06.021
117 X Zhang, H Li, Q Cao, L Jin, F Wang (2018). Upgrading pyrolytic residue from waste tires to commercial carbon black. Waste Manag Res, 36(5): 436–444
https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X18764292 pmid: 29589516
118 X Zhang, T Wang, L Ma, J Chang (2008). Vacuum pyrolysis of waste tires with basic additives. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 28(11): 2301–2310
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.10.009 pmid: 18162390
119 P Zhao, Y Han, X Dong, C Zhang, S Liu (2015). Application of activated carbons derived from scrap tires as electrode materials for supercapacitors. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology: JSS, 4(7): M35–M40
https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0271505jss
120 M Zhi, F Yang, F Meng, M Li, A Manivannan, N Wu (2014). Effects of pore structure on performance of an activated-carbon supercapacitor electrode recycled from scrap waste tires. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2(7): 1592–1598
https://doi.org/10.1021/sc500336h
121 J Zhou, J Wang, X Ren, Y Yang, B Jiang (2006). Surface modification of pyrolytic carbon black from waste tires and its use as pigment for offset printing ink. Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering, 14(5): 654–659
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1004-9541(06)60130-4
122 J Zhou, T Yu, S Wu, Z Xie, Y Yang (2010). Inverse gas chromatography investigation of rubber reinforcement by modified pyrolytic carbon black from scrap tires. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 49(4): 1691–1696
https://doi.org/10.1021/ie9009217
[1] Haiyan Yang, Shangping Xu, Derek E. Chitwood, Yin Wang. Ceramic water filter for point-of-use water treatment in developing countries: Principles, challenges and opportunities[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2020, 14(5): 79-.
[2] Yulong Shi, Jiaxuan Yang, Jun Ma, Congwei Luo. Feasibility of bubble surface modification for natural organic matter removal from river water using dissolved air flotation[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2017, 11(6): 10-.
Viewed
Full text


Abstract

Cited

  Shared   
  Discussed