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Direct writing of electronics based on alloy and metal (DREAM) ink: A newly emerging area and its impact on energy, environment and health sciences
Qin ZHANG, Yi ZHENG, Jing LIU
Frontiers in Energy. 2012, 6 (4): 311-340.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-012-0214-x
Electronics, such as printed circuit board (PCB), transistor, radio frequency identification (RFID), organic light emitting diode (OLED), solar cells, electronic display, lab on a chip (LOC), sensor, actuator, and transducer etc. are playing increasingly important roles in people’s daily life. Conventional fabrication strategy towards integrated circuit (IC), requesting at least six working steps, generally consumes too much energy, material and water, and is not environmentally friendly. During the etching process, a large amount of raw materials have to be abandoned. Besides, lithography and microfabrication are typically carried out in “Cleanroom” which restricts the location of IC fabrication and leads to high production costs. As an alternative, the newly emerging ink-jet printing electronics are gradually shaping modern electronic industry and its related areas, owing to the invention of a series of conductive inks composed of polymer matrix, conductive fillers, solvents and additives. Nevertheless, the currently available methods also encounter some technical troubles due to the low electroconductivity, complex sythesis and sintering process of the inks. As an alternative, a fundamentally different strategy was recently proposed by the authors’ lab towards truly direct writing of electronics through introduction of a new class of conductive inks made of low melting point liquid metal or its alloy. The method has been named as direct writing of electronics based on alloy and metal (DREAM) ink. A series of functional circuits, sensors, electronic elements and devices can thus be easily written on various either soft or rigid substrates in a moment. With more and more technical progresses and fundamental discoveries being kept made along this category, it was found that a new area enabled by the DREAM ink electronics is emerging, which would have tremendous impacts on future energy and environmental sciences. In order to promote the research and development along this direction, the present paper is dedicated to draft a comprehensive picture on the DREAM ink technology by summarizing its most basic features and principles. Some important low melting point metal ink candidates, especially the room temperature liquid metals such as gallium and its alloy, were collected, listed and analyzed. The merits and demerits between conventional printed electronics and the new direct writing methods were comparatively evaluated. Important scientific issues and technical strategies to modify the DREAM ink were suggested and potential application areas were proposed. Further, digestions on the impacts of the new technology among energy, health, and environmental sciences were presented. Meanwhile, some practical challenges, such as security, environment-friendly feature, steady usability, package, etc. were summarized. It is expected that the DREAM ink technology will initiate a series of unconventional applications in modern society, and even enter into peoples’ daily life in the near future.
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Energy budget and economic analysis in conventional and organic rice production systems and organic scenarios in the transition period in Iran
Hamed MANSOORI, Parviz Rezvani MOGHADDAM, Rooholla MORADI
Frontiers in Energy. 2012, 6 (4): 341-350.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-012-0206-x
Compared to conventional agriculture, organic agriculture is reported to be more efficient and effective in reducing water and soil pollution, greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission and risk of human health. In additional, field management under organic condition can be useful for increasing energy efficiency. Rice is one of the important crops which are cultivated in two forms, organic and conventional, in Iran. In order to compare the energy efficiency and economic analysis of rice production in organic and conventional systems in Iran, needed information was collected by face-to-face questionnaire in 2011 and three scenarios were designed to predict the changes of energy budget and economic analysis in the transition period that included: 25%, 50% and 75% organic management in rice production. The results showed that all energy indexes were improved in organic rice production compared to conventional condition. Higher values of benefit to cost ratio, gross and net return and lower value of total cost of production were obtained from organic rice production which indicated that the organic management of farm improved economically in comparison with the conventional rice production system. The shares of direct and renewable energies were increased by approach to organic management. Increase in energy efficiency and productivity was predicted for the transition period but decrease trend in economic indexes was projected for this period in all scenarios. The main reason for decreasing economic indexes in organic scenarios was that the market price of organic rice was the same as that of conventional rice in the transition period.
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Composite adsorbents of CaCl2 and sawdust prepared by carbonization for ammonia adsorption refrigeration
Huashan LI, Xianbiao BU, Lingbao WANG, Zhenneng LU, Weibin MA
Frontiers in Energy. 2012, 6 (4): 356-360.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-012-0207-9
Composite adsorbents of CaCl2 and sawdust prepared by carbonization for adsorption refrigeration with NH3 as refrigerant are tested, and the effects of carbonization temperature on the sorption capacity and rate are analyzed. The results show that the amount of pores in the sawdust of the composite adsorbents carbonized, apart from the content of CaCl2, is the most dominant factor influencing the NH3 sorption on composite adsorbents. The optimum carbonization temperature is 700°C, which gives the maximal NH3 sorption capacity as high as 0.774 kg of NH3 per kg of the composite, and the specific cooling power is approximately between 338 and 869 W/kg with the cycle duration varying from 5 to 20 minutes. The present study demonstrates that the composite absorbent of CaCl2 and sawdust prepared by carbonization is more promising and competitive for adsorption refrigeration application.
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Evolving perspectives on biofuels in the United States
Lisa C. DIRKS, Gary W. DIRKS, Jianguo WU
Frontiers in Energy. 2012, 6 (4): 379-393.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-012-0213-y
Biofuels represent an important source of renewable energy and may play a crucial role in developing sustainable energy strategies for many countries and the world as a whole. The pros and cons of biofuels, however, have been debated both scientifically and politically. They remain a topic of controversy. In this paper, the evolvement of the perspectives and policies on biofuels in the United States in the past several decades was reviewed. Four different periods, that is, the period prior to 1978 (marked by the passage of the Energy Act in 1978); 1978–1989 (ending with the passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990); 1990–2004 (ending with the passage of the energy act of 2005); and 2005 to the present, which were characterized by defining events of major policy importance were identified. Each time period was assessed using the Ostrom institutional analysis and development (IAD) framework to show the impact of the evolving interests and influences of global players on policy choices related to biofuels in the United States. The US has a long history of supporting corn-based ethanol and more recently advanced biofuels. Changes in perspectives on biofuels from largely unrelated groups led to changes in policy and market dynamics. Until the late 1990s, most perspectives and policies tended to be aligned and significantly supportive of corn-based ethanol in the United States. In the early 2000s, it became clear that the complications associated with first generation biofuels and corn-based ethanol in particular, were too numerous and too severe to overlook. The need for better options has spurred interest in new technologies and more environmentally benign feedstocks, but, there is little prospect for biofuels playing a significant role in the near term without greater alignment among key players.
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Establishment and verification of a shrinking core model for dilute acid hydrolysis of lignocellulose
Cunwen WANG, Xiaoling DUAN, Weiguo WANG, Zihao LI, Yuanhang QIN
Frontiers in Energy. 2012, 6 (4): 413-419.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-012-0212-z
The kinetics of lignocellulose hydrolysis under the conditions of high temperature and dilute acid (mass fraction 0.05%) was investigated in this paper. By studying the reducing sugar concentration versus reaction temperature (170°C–220°C) and reaction time (150–1800 s) during the hydrolysis process of five kinds of crop straw (rice, wheat, cotton, rape and corn), the shrinking core model was established, and the differential equation of the model and its analytical solution were obtained. With a numerical calculation method, the kinetic equation was estimated, and the degradation of reducing sugar obeyed first-order kinetics was obtained. The calculated results from the equations agreed well with the original experimental data. The calculation by the model showed that the reducing sugar concentration increases as the size of the particles decrease, and the uniform particles increase.
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Energy consumption and carbon emissions of hospitals in Tianjin
Chongxu JIANG, Jincheng XING, Jihong LING, Xiaona QIN
Frontiers in Energy. 2012, 6 (4): 427-435.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-012-0199-5
An energy audit of 22 tertiary hospitals was conducted in Tianjin. The detailed content included design data, basic information, energy bills and equipment lists. It was shown that during the study, the energy intensity of hospitals in Tianjin was approximately stable and the average level of energy consumption was 348 kW·h/(m2·a). From the date collected, it was calculated that the energy intensity of general hospitals was 380 kW·h/(m2·a), and the average carbon emissions was 157 kgCO2/(m2·a); While the energy intensity of specialized hospitals was 309 kW·h/(m2·a), and the average carbon emissions was 131 kgCO2/(m2·a). By breaking the energy consumption down into several items, it was found that the heating system consumed the highest amount of energy (42.12%), followed by the cooling system (6.78%), the medical equipment (4.98%) and the lighting system (3.63%). The main factors that affect the hospital energy consumption were determined, and some feasible technology and management measures to save energy and reduce carbon emissions were proposed.
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