Please wait a minute...
Frontiers of Medicine

ISSN 2095-0217

ISSN 2095-0225(Online)

CN 11-5983/R

Postal Subscription Code 80-967

2018 Impact Factor: 1.847

Front. Med.    2019, Vol. 13 Issue (2) : 202-212    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-017-0587-7
REVIEW
Physiological effects of weightlessness: countermeasure system development for a long-term Chinese manned spaceflight
Linjie Wang(), Zhili Li, Cheng Tan, Shujuan Liu, Jianfeng Zhang, Siyang He, Peng Zou, Weibo Liu, Yinghui Li
State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing 100094, China
 Download: PDF(455 KB)   HTML
 Export: BibTeX | EndNote | Reference Manager | ProCite | RefWorks
Abstract

The Chinese space station will be built around 2020. As a national space laboratory, it will offer unique opportunities for studying the physiological effects of weightlessness and the efficacy of the countermeasures against such effects. In this paper, we described the development of countermeasure systems in the Chinese space program. To emphasize the need of the Chinese space program to implement its own program for developing countermeasures, we reviewed the literature on the negative physiological effects of weightlessness, the challenges of completing missions, the development of countermeasure devices, the establishment of countermeasure programs, and the efficacy of the countermeasure techniques in American and Russian manned spaceflights. In addition, a brief overview was provided on the Chinese research and development on countermeasures to discuss the current status and goals of the development of countermeasures against physiological problems associated with weightlessness.

Keywords countermeasure      physiological effects of weightlessness      effect evaluation      long-term manned spaceflight     
Corresponding Author(s): Linjie Wang   
Just Accepted Date: 25 January 2018   Online First Date: 25 April 2018    Issue Date: 28 March 2019
 Cite this article:   
Linjie Wang,Zhili Li,Cheng Tan, et al. Physiological effects of weightlessness: countermeasure system development for a long-term Chinese manned spaceflight[J]. Front. Med., 2019, 13(2): 202-212.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fmd/EN/10.1007/s11684-017-0587-7
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fmd/EN/Y2019/V13/I2/202
Fig.1  Development process of a countermeasure system against the physiological effects of weightlessness.
Fig.2  Stride length, maximum impulse force, and oxygen consumption variations at different velocities under normal gravity and simulated weightlessness conditions. The longer stride length, decreased maximum impulse force, and relatively higher VO2 expenditure at lower speeds. Lower VO2 expenditure when running at speeds higher than 7 km/h in simulated weightlessness. NG, normal gravity; SW, simulated weightlessness; *, vs. NG P<0.05.
Fig.3  Plantar force profile changes at different velocities under normal gravity and simulated weightlessness conditions. When the subject was walking at 3 km/h, the double peak curves of the foot force variations can be easily recognized. However, this kind force pattern was not obvious at higher speeds (7 km/h and 10 km/h). Plantar force decreased in SW conditions at any speed. NG, normal gravity; SW, simulated weightlessness. Adapted from Ref.69, permitted under AAAS’s License to Publish.
Discipline Test performed Measurement
Cardiovascular Cardiac function Echocardiography
Cardiovascular tilt test Evaluation of orthostatic intolerance, ECG, finger hemodynamic test
Laser doppler blood flow detection
Transcranial doppler test
Endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation
Bone Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry Bone density of whole body, lumbar spine, proximal femora (hips), calcaneus (heel)
Bone metabolism markers Serum chemistry Calcium homeostasis, gonadal hormones, calcitropic hormones, endocrine regulators, bone turnover markers
Urinary chemistry Minerals, bone turnover markers
Exercise physiology Isokinetic testing Muscle strength and endurance of the knee and ankle
Cycle ergometry Aerobic capacity (VO2), heart rate, ECG, blood pressure, workload
Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscular metabolism markers Serum chemistry Endocrine regulators, cytokines, and cell signaling mediators
Urinary measures Skeletal, muscular, peptide histological spectrum
Immunology Stress measures Neuroendocrine hormones and cytokines in response to biochemical and psychological stress
Oxidative stress measures Protein oxidative damage, lipid peroxidation damage, nucleic acid DNA/RNA damage
Immune status Leukocyte subset distribution, T cell function, T cell cytokine production profiles, antioxidant analysis
Biological rhythm Serum measures Epigenetic detection index
Saliva measures Melatonin, cortisol
Tab.1  Partial physiological measures before and after the Chinese space program
1 JVMeck, SA Dreyer, LEWarren. Long-duration head-down bed rest: project overview, vital signs, and fluid balance. Aviat Space Environ Med 2009; 80(5 Suppl): A1–A8
https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.BR01.2009 pmid: 19476163
2 KMarshall-Goebel, E Mulder, EBershad, CLaing, AEklund, JMalm, C Stern, JRittweger. Intracranial and intraocular pressure during various degrees of head-down tilt. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2017; 88(1): 10–16
https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.4653.2017 pmid: 28061916
3 JZange, K Müller, MSchuber, HWackerhage, UHoffmann, RWGünther, GAdam, JM Neuerburg, VESinitsyn, AOBacharev, OIBelichenko. Changes in calf muscle performance, energy metabolism, and muscle volume caused by long-term stay on space station MIR. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18(Suppl 4): S308– S309
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-972738 pmid: 9391844
4 JPLoenneke, JM Wilson, MGBemben. Potential exercise countermeasures to attenuate skeletal muscle deterioration in space. J Trainology 2012; 1(1): 1–5
https://doi.org/10.17338/trainology.1.1_1
5 KJHackney, JM Scott, AMHanson, KLEnglish, MEDowns, LLPloutz-Snyder. The astronaut-athlete: optimizing human performance in space. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29(12): 3531–3545
https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001191 pmid: 26595138
6 KOGenc, VE Mandes, PRCavanagh. Gravity replacement during running in simulated microgravity. Aviat Space Environ Med 2006; 77(11): 1117–1124
pmid: 17086763
7 JVMeck, CJ Reyes, SAPerez, ALGoldberger, MGZiegler. Marked exacerbation of orthostatic intolerance after long- vs. short-duration spaceflight in veteran astronauts. Psychosom Med 2001; 63(6): 865–873
https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-200111000-00003 pmid: 11719623
8 CMTipton. ACSM’s Advanced Exercise Physiology. Baltimore, New York: American College of Sports Medicine, 2006
9 JCBuckey. Space Physiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006
10 AD JrMoore, ME Downs, SMCLee, AHFeiveson, PKnudsen, LPloutz-Snyder. Peak exercise oxygen uptake during and following long-duration spaceflight. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 117(3): 231–238
https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01251.2013 pmid: 24970852
11 MHeer, WH Paloski. Space motion sickness: incidence, etiology, and countermeasures. Auton Neurosci 2006; 129(1-2): 77–79
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autneu.2006.07.014 pmid: 16935570
12 BRMacias, JH Liu, NGrande-Gutierrez, ARHargens. Intraocular and intracranial pressures during head-down tilt with lower body negative pressure. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(1): 3–7
pmid: 25565526
13 SACowell, JM Stocks, DGEvans, SRSimonson, JEGreenleaf. The exercise and environmental physiology of extravehicular activity. Aviat Space Environ Med 2002; 73(1): 54–67
pmid: 11817621
14 Human Research Program Human Health Countermeasures Element. Risk of Reduced Physical Performance Capabilities due to Reduced Aerobic Capacity. Huston: NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2015
15 OWhite, G Clément, JOFortrat, APavy-LeTraon, JLThonnard, SBlanc, FLWuyts, WHPaloski. Towards human exploration of space: the THESEUS review series on neurophysiology research priorities. NPJ Microgravity 2016; 2:16023
https://doi.org/10.038 npjmgrav.2016.23
16 VAConvertino. Consequences of cardiovascular adaptation to spaceflight: implications for the use of pharmacological countermeasures. Gravit Space Biol Bull 2005; 18(2): 59–69
pmid: 16038093
17 PUllom-Minnich. Prevention of osteoporosis and fractures. Am Fam Physician 1999; 60(1): 194–202
pmid: 10414638
18 TLang, A LeBlanc, HEvans, YLu, H Genant, AYu. Cortical and trabecular bone mineral loss from the spine and hip in long-duration spaceflight. J Bone Miner Res 2004; 19(6): 1006–1012
https://doi.org/10.1359/JBMR.040307 pmid: 15125798
19 TFLang. What do we know about fracture risk in long-duration spaceflight? J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2006; 6(4): 319–321
pmid: 17185806
20 JRittweger, HC Gunga, DFelsenberg, KAKirsch. Muscle and bone-aging and space. J Gravit Physiol 1999; 6(1): 133–136
pmid: 11542992
21 CAndrojna, NP McCabe, PRCavanagh, RJMidura. Effects of spaceflight and skeletal unloading on bone fracture healing. Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab 2012; 10(2): 61–70
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12018-011-9080-z
22 JAHawley, M Hargreaves, MJJoyner, JRZierath. Integrative biology of exercise. Cell 2014; 159(4): 738–749
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.10.029 pmid: 25417152
23 PRCavanagh, AA Licata, AJRice. Exercise and pharmacological countermeasures for bone loss during long-duration space flight. Gravit Space Biol Bull 2005; 18(2): 39–58
pmid: 16038092
24 NPetersen, P Jaekel, ARosenberger, TWeber, JScott, FCastrucci, GLambrecht, LPloutz-Snyder, VDamann, IKozlovskaya, JMester. Exercise in space: the European Space Agency approach to in-flight exercise countermeasures for long-duration missions on ISS. Extrem Physiol Med 2016; 5(1): 9
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13728-016-0050-4 pmid: 27489615
25 SMSmith, MA Heer, LCShackelford, JDSibonga, LPloutz-Snyder, SRZwart. Benefits for bone from resistance exercise and nutrition in long-duration spaceflight: evidence from biochemistry and densitometry. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27(9): 1896–1906
https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.1647 pmid: 22549960
26 DWKorth. Exercise countermeasure hardware evolution on ISS: the first decade. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A7–A13
https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.EC02.2015 pmid: 26630190
27 ENYarmanova, IB Kozlovskaya, NNKhimoroda, EVFomina. Evolution of Russian microgravity countermeasures. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A32–A37
https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.EC05.2015 pmid: 26630193
28 IBKozlovskaya, EN Yarmanova, ADYegorov, VIStepantsov, EVFomina, ESTomilovaskaya. Russian countermeasure system for adverse effects of microgravity on long-duration ISS flights. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A24–A31
https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.EC04.2015 pmid: 26630192
29 MHeer, N Baecker, PFrings-Meuthen, SGraf, SR Zwart, GBiolo, SMSmith. Effects of high-protein intake on bone turnover in long-term bed rest in women. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42(5): 537–546
https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0292 pmid: 28177714
30 NWHales, K Yamauchi, AAlicea, ASundaresan, NRPellis, ADKulkarni. A countermeasure to ameliorate immune dysfunction in in vitro simulated microgravity environment: role of cellular nucleotide nutrition. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2002; 38(4): 213–217
https://doi.org/10.1290/1071-2690(2002)038<0213:ACTAID>2.0.CO;2 pmid: 12197773
31 Task Group on Research on the International Space Station Space Studies Board Division on Engineering and Physical Science. Factors affecting the utilization of the International Space Station for research in the biological and physical sciences. Washington D. C.: National Research Council of the National Academes and National Academy of Public Administration, 2003: 29–36
32 NBeyene. The art of space flight exercise hardware: design and implementation. In: Space 2004 Conference and Exhibit. Sep 28–30, 2004; San Diego, California, USA
https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-5837
33 SCNovotny, GP Perusek, AJRice, BAComstock, ABansal, PRCavanagh. A harness for enhanced comfort and loading during treadmill exercise in space. Acta Astronaut 2013; 89: 205–214
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.03.010
34 KOGenc, R Gopalakrishnan, MMKuklis, CCMaender, AJRice, KDBowersox, PRCavanagh. Foot forces during exercise on the International Space Station. J Biomech 2010; 43(15): 3020–3027
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.06.028 pmid: 20728086
35 JCHayes, L Loerch, JDavis-Street, CHaralson, CSams. Current ISS exercise countermeasure: where are we now? In: 77th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Aerospace. May 14–18, 2008; Orlando, Florida, USA
36 JLMcCrory, DR Lemmon, HJSommer, BProut, DSmith, DWKorth, JLucero, MGreenisen, JMoore, IKozlovskaya, IPestov, VStepansov, YMiyakinchenko, PRCavanagh. Evaluation of a treadmill with vibration isolation and stabilization (TVIS) for use on the International Space Station. J Appl Biomech 1999; 15(3): 292–302
https://doi.org/10.1123/jab.15.3.292 pmid: 11541844
37 MYBelyaev, EV Babkin, SBRyabukha, AVRyazantsev. Microperturbations on the International Space Station during physical exercises of the crew. Cosm Res 2011; 49(2): 160–174
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0010952511010011
38 PRCavanagh, KO Genc, RGopalakrishnan, MMKuklis, CCMaender, AJRice. Foot forces during typical days on the international space station. J Biomech 2010; 43(11): 2182–2188
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.03.044 pmid: 20462584
39 TPGosseye, PA Willems, NCHeglund. Biomechanical analysis of running in weightlessness on a treadmill equipped with a subject loading system. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 110(4): 709–728
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-010-1549-9 pmid: 20582597
40 DLCarlson, M Durrani, CLRedilla. Design of a resistive exercise device for use on the space shuttle. Dissertation Austin: University of Texas, 1992
41 WEAmonette, JR Bentley, SMCLee, JALoehr, SSchneider. Ground reaction force and mechanical differences between the interim resistive exercise device (iRED) and smith machine while performing a squat. Huston: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2004
42 KLEnglish, JA Loehr, SMCLee, MALaughlin, RDHagan. Reliability of strength testing using the advanced resistive exercise device and free weights. Huston: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2008
43 CDLamoreaux, ME Landeck. Mechanism development, testing, and lessons learned for the advanced resistive exercise device. In: Proceedings of the 38th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium. May 17–19, 2006; Hampton, Virginia, USA. 317–330
44 JHNiebuhr, RA Hagen. Development of the vibration isolation system for the advanced resistive exercise device. In: Proceedings of the 41st Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium. May 16–18, 2012; La Cañada Flintridge, California, USA. 67–80
45 JALoehr, ME Guilliams, NPetersen, NHirsch, SKawashima, HOhshima. Physical training for long-duration spaceflight. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A14–A23
https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.EC03.2015 pmid: 26630191
46 L.Ploutz-Snyder Integrated resistance and aerobic training study – sprint. Huston: NASA Human Research Program Informed Consent Briefing, 2010
47 TMatsuo, K Ohkawara, SSeino, NShimojo, SYamada, HOhshima, KTanaka, CMukai. An exercise protocol designed to control energy expenditure for long-term space missions. Aviat Space Environ Med 2012; 83(8): 783–789
https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.3298.2012 pmid: 22872993
48 JHayes. The first decade of ISS exercise: lessons learned on expeditions 1–25. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2015; 86(12 Suppl): A1–A6
https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.EC01.2015 pmid: 26630187
49 SSchneider. Exercise in space: a holistic approach for the benefit of human health on earth. New York: Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland, 2016
50 LWebster, JG Chen, LFlores, STan. Exercise countermeasure protocol management expert system. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 1993; 39(3-4): 217–223
https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-2607(93)90024-F pmid: 8334874
51 VAConvertino. Exercise as a countermeasure for physiological adaptation to prolonged spaceflight. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28(8): 999–1014
https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199608000-00010 pmid: 8871910
52 VAConvertino, H Sandler. Exercise countermeasures for spaceflight. Acta Astronaut 1995; 35(4-5): 253–270
https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-5765(95)98731-N pmid: 11541470
53 AVRao, AV Phadke, PBPatil, ARJoshi. Comparison of non-exercise test and step test in estimation of aerobic capacity (VO2max) in young adults. Natl J Physiol Pharm Pharmacol 2014; 4(3): 218–220
https://doi.org/10.5455/njppp.2014.4.150420141
54 LTWier, GW Ayers, ASJackson, ACRossum, WSPPoston, JPForeyt. Determining the amount of physical activity needed for long-term weight control. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25(5): 613–621
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801586 pmid: 11360142
55 AHFeiveson. Quantitative assessment of countermeasure efficacy for long-term space missions. In: Presentation to the Institute of Medicine Committee on strategies for small number participant clinical research trials. Sep 28, 2000; Washington DC, USA
56 JECoolahan, AB Feldman, SPMurphy. Simulation of integrated physiology based on an astronaut exercise protocol. Johns Hopkins APL Tech Dig 2004; 25(3): 201–213
57 WKThompson, EE Caldwell, NJNewby, BTHumphreys, BELewandowski, JAPennline, LPloutz-Snyder, LMulugeta. Integrated biomechanical modeling of lower body exercises on the advanced resistive exercise device (ARED) using LifeMOD®. In: 44th International Conference on Environmental Systems. Jul 13–17, 2014; Tucson, Arizona, USA
58 SRAbram, BL Hodnett, RLSummers, TGColeman, RLHester. Quantitative Circulatory Physiology: an integrative mathematical model of human physiology for medical education. Adv Physiol Educ 2007; 31(2): 202–210
https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00114.2006 pmid: 17562912
59 RLHester, AJ Brown, LHusband, RIliescu, DPruett, RSummers, TGColeman. HumMod: a modeling environment for the simulation of integrative human physiology. Front Physiol 2011; 2: 12
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2011.00012 pmid: 21647209
60 WKThompson, CA Gallo, LCrentsil, BELewandowski, BTHumphreys, JKDeWitt, RSFincke, LMulugeta. Digital astronaut project biomechanical models—biomechanical modeling of squat, single-leg squat and heel raise exercise on the hybrid ultimate lifting kit (HULK). Huston: Jonson Space Center, 2015
61 RSummers, T Coleman, JMeck. Development of the digital astronaut project for the analysis of the mechanisms of physiologic adaptation to microgravity: validation of the cardiovascular system module. Acta Astronaut 2008; 63(7-10): 758–762
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2007.12.054
62 CJiang, S Jiang, JLi, YYao, X Wu, XSun. Effect of extremity cuffs as a countermeasure against the cardiovascular deconditioning during 21 d head-down bedrest. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing) (Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 1999; 12(5): 364–367 (in Chinese)
pmid: 12022183
63 YLiu, J Zhen, BWu, DZhao, H Sun, ZPan, KLi, P Wu, ZGu, YZeng, G Liu, JGeng, XSun. Effects of exercise training during 30 d -6° head-down bed rest on lower limb muscle atrophy and function changes. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing) (Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 2009; 22(4): 240–246 (in Chinese)
64 BLiu, Y Zhu, ZLi, WChen, L Wang, YLi, YBai. Effects of 30 d -6° head down bed rest on male aerobic capacity and its protection strategy. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing)( Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 2014; 27(4): 235–240 (in Chinese)
65 CTan, Y Cao, LZhang, MYuan, H Wang, DNiu, QZhao, Z Li, WChen, HYang, L Wang, YLi, YBai. Effects of 15 d -6° head-down bed rest on female orthostatic tolerance. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing)( Hang Tian Yi Xue Yu Yi Xue Gong Cheng) 2011; 24(4): 246–252 (in Chinese)
66 AENicogossian, RS Williams, CLHuntoon, CRDoarn, JDPolk, VSSchneider. Space Physiology and Medicine: from evidence to practice. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2016
67 PArezes. Advances in safety management and human factors. In: Proceedings of the AHFE 2016 International Conference on Safety Management and Human Factors. Jul 27–31, 2016; Walt Disney World, Florida, USA. 2016. 392–393
68 GPerusek, T Owings, JRyder, MSavina, CSheehan, BLDavis. Validation of improved comfort and loading with the center for space medicine harness. Station Development Test Objective: Harness SDTO PI final report. Cleveland: NASA GLEN Research Center, 2011
69 CTan, Z Li, SChen, XChen. Investigation of gait pattern in simulated weightlessness. A Sponsored Supplement to Science — Human Performance in Space: Advancing Astronautics Research in China. 2014. 20–21
70 RCReinertson, VA Nelson, SMAunon, TTSchlegel, KNLindgren, ELKerstman, MArya, WH Paloski. Medical monitoring during the NASA artificial gravity-bed rest pilot study. J Gravit Physiol 2007; 14(1): 9–13
pmid: 18372685
71 MASchmidt, TJ Goodwin, RPelligra. Incorporation of omics analyses into artificial gravity research for space exploration countermeasure development. Metabolomics 2016; 12(2): 36
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-015-0942-0 pmid: 26834514
72 GRClément, AP Bukley, WHPaloski. Artificial gravity as a countermeasure for mitigating physiological deconditioning during long-duration space missions. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9: 92
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2015.00092 pmid: 26136665
73 RJWhite, JI Leonard, JARummel, CSLeach. A systems approach to the physiology of weightlessness. J Med Syst 1982; 6(4): 343–358
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992878 pmid: 7142855
74 HShi, Y Li, ZTang, CZhong, QFan, J Gao, JLiu, TMi, S Zhao, YLi. Impact of 60 days of 6° head down bed rest on cardiopulmonary function, and the effects of Taikong Yangxin Prescription as a countermeasure. Chin J Integr Med 2014; 20(9): 654–660
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11655-014-1345-y pmid: 24810476
75 MYuan, A Alameddine, MCoupé, NMNavasiolava, YLi, G Gauquelin-Koch, YBai, SJiang, YWan, J Wang, YLi, MACustaud. Effect of Chinese herbal medicine on vascular functions during 60-day head-down bed rest. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115(9): 1975–1983
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3176-y pmid: 25957107
Viewed
Full text


Abstract

Cited

  Shared   
  Discussed