1. Intelligent Manufacturing Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China 2. Shantou Ruixiang Mould Co. Ltd., Jinping S&T Park, Shantou 515064, China 3. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar 140001, India 4. IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-004 Lisboa, Portugal
Rapid prototyping (RP) or layered manufacturing (LM) technologies have been extensively used to manufacture prototypes composed mainly of plastics, polymers, paper, and wax due to the short product development time and low costs of these technologies. However, such technologies, with the exception of selective laser melting and sintering, are not used to fabricate metallic products because of the resulting poor life, short cycle, poor surface finish, and low structural integrity of the fabricated parts. The properties endowed by these parts do not match those of functional parts. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted to develop new additive manufacturing (AM) technologies by extending existing RP technologies. Several AM technologies have been developed for the fabrication of metallic objects. These technologies utilize materials, such as Ni-, Al-, and Ti-based alloys and stainless steel powders, to fabricate high-quality functional components. The present work reviews the type of materials used in laser-based AM processes for the manufacture of metallic products. The advantages and disadvantages of processes and different materials are summarized, and future research directions are discussed in the final section. This review can help experts select the ideal type of process or technology for the manufacturing of elements composed of a given alloy or material (Ni, Ti, Al, Pb, and stainless steel).
Free of defects, lower melting efficiency with respect to other LM processes.
EBM
20%–80% higher elongation, hardness; high density parts made in lesser time when high power fibre lasers are used.
3DMW
Improved Vickers hardness and wear resistance
SLS
Higher density, hybrid manufacturing, less porosity
SLM
Better bio-compatibility for tantalum and titanium alloys as compared to Ti-6Al-4V.
Tab.2
Technique
Advantages and disadvantages
SLM
Comparable to other LM processes with regard to time, cost but have higher rigidity and wear resistance. Parts are free from cracks, defects with higher tensile strength, high thermal stresses generated during melting/solidification.
Laser surface modification in LENS
38% improvement in thermal conductivity, 54% in performance, 21% in convective heat transfer rate.
Micro powder injection
Real time monitoring, rapid mold adjustment makes molding of high aspect green micro-structures possible, made with lower heat loss.
RP machine: Micro welding M3 linear, 3D (SLS), EOS (DLSM), MCP-HEK (SLM)
RPM can make complicated geometry products, cooling tubes and thin walls, with the best quality and strength from M3 linear. Poor surface finish, but can be used with all materials processed by SLS, EBM, and LPD.
Tab.3
Technique
Advantages and disadvantages
DMD
Free from cracks, porosity and bonding error for Inconel 625.
3DMW
Used on Inconel 600. Hardness, elongation, density and strength comparable to commercial super alloy.
SLM
90% higher density, most of the metals, high strength. Better dimensional accuracy.
3DP on powder mix of Fe, Cr, Ni, Cu, and Mo
Same steady state maximum temperature, but different transient temperature evolution.
Tab.4
Technique
Advantages and disadvantages
Rapid casting based on 3DP
Prototyping done in lesser times with lower costs, dimensional tolerances within metal casting limits. Preferred to make complex shapes from CAD with lower production costs.
RP with integrated investment casting process
Reduced fluidity due to viscosity increase of the melt.
Anchorless SLM
Reduced residual stresses, better geometric tolerances for overhanging geometries, no anchoring is required for holding.
Tab.5
Technique
Advantages and disadvantages
Direct RP printing
Used in 3D printed circuits. Size reduction of 34%.
3DP
Significant difference in aerodynamic coefficients of fabricated airfoil, lower time and cost expended. Using Elecform, makes products comparable to SLS/SLM, HSM parts.
SLS
Can produce functionally graded porous specimens with controlled variations in physical and mechanical properties. Reduced porosity in injection molded parts, better process than oven post processing.
DMLS for RT of tyre tread ring mould
Saves time, cost aiding in tyre testing and development.
Laser-based digital microfabrication
Compatible with wide range of materials, surface chemistries and morphologies.
Direct laser fabrication
Nd:YAG laser produces high intensity, finely crystallised parts with lower plasticity and oriented solidification structure.
Tab.6
Parameters
Laser cladding
Cold spray coating
Thickness range
1–3 mm
3 mm
Adhesion strength
48 MPa
Very less (coating detached from substrate during handling)
Porosity
>2%
<1%
Tensile strength
180 MPa
170 MPa
Elongation
11%
7%
Electrical conductivity
Not measured
53 MSU
Thermal conductivity
140 W/(m?K)
>200 W/(m?K)
Density
7.65 g/mL3 (89%)
7.40 g/mL3 (86%)
Corrosion rate
17.77×10−3 mpy
342.7×10−3 mpy
Tab.7
Fig.3
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