Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine operating on different water in diesel emulsion fuels: optimization using response surface methodology (RSM)
Seyed Saeed HOSEINI, Mohammad Amin SOBATI()
School of Chemical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Tehran 16765163, Iran
The nitrogen oxide (NOx) release of diesel engines can be reduced using water in diesel emulsion fuel without any engine modification. In the present paper, different formulations of water in diesel emulsion fuels were prepared by ultrasonic irradiation. The water droplet size in the emulsion, polydisperisty index, and the stability of prepared fuel was examined, experimentally. Afterwards, the performance characteristics and exhaust emission of a single cylinder air-cooled diesel engine were investigated using different water in diesel emulsion fuels. The effect of water content (in the range of 5%–10% by volume), surfactant content (in the range of 0.5%–2% by volume), and hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) (in the range of 5–8) was examined using Box-Behnken design (BBD) as a subset of response surface methodology (RSM). Considering multi-objective optimization, the best formulation for the emulsion fuel was found to be 5% water, 2% surfactant, and HLB of 6.8. A comparison was made between the best emulsion fuel and the neat diesel fuel for engine performance and emission characteristics. A considerable decrease in the nitrogen oxide emission (–18.24%) was observed for the best emulsion fuel compared to neat diesel fuel.
通讯作者:
SOBATI Mohammad Amin
E-mail: sobati@iust.ac.ir
Corresponding Author(s):
Mohammad Amin SOBATI
引用本文:
HOSEINI Seyed Saeed, SOBATI Mohammad Amin. 在使用含不同比例水的柴油乳化燃料条件下柴油发动机的性能和排放特性:采用响应面优化法[J]. Frontiers in Energy, 2019, 13(4): 636-657.
Seyed Saeed HOSEINI, Mohammad Amin SOBATI. Performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine operating on different water in diesel emulsion fuels: optimization using response surface methodology (RSM). Front. Energy, 2019, 13(4): 636-657.
Four cylinders, Engine speed= 1000–3000 r/min, Engine load= 100%
Water= 5%–30%(vol), Surfactant= 2% (vol)
Tween 20
16.7
decrease
decrease
increase
decrease
No information
No information
increase
decrease
Basha et al. [25]
One cylinder, Engine speed= 1500 r/min, Engine load= 100%
Water= 5% (vol), Surfactant= 2% (vol)
Tween 80 and Span 80
8
No information
No information
increase
increase
decrease
increase
No information
decrease
Ithnin et al. [9]
One cylinder, Engine speed= 3000 r/min, Engine load= 25%–100%
Water=5%–20% (vol), Surfactant= 2% (vol)
Span 80
4.3
No information
No information
No information
No information
increase
No information
No different
decrease
Abu-Zaid [6]
One cylinder, Engine speed= 1200–3300 r/min, Engine load= 100%
Water= 5%–20% (vol), Surfactant= 2% (vol)
Tween 80 and Span 80
-
increase
increase
decrease
increase
No information
No information
No information
No information
Tab.1
Properties
Value
Test type
Density at 15°C/(g·cm–3)
0.827
ASTM D 1298
Kinematic viscosity at 40°C/(mm2·s–1)
2.83
ASTM D 445
Cetane number
56.34
ASTM D 976
Net Calorific value/(MJ·kg–1)
46.42
ASTM D 4868
Flash point/°C
67
ASTM D 93
Cloud point/°C
1
ASTM D 97
Pour point/°C
–6
ASTM D 2500
Water content/ppm
54
ASTM D 6304
Sulfur content/ppm
48
ASTM D 4294
Tab.2
Fig.1
Type
Lombardini-Diesel 3LD510
Number of cylinder
1
Swept volume
510 cm3
Bore
85 mm
Stroke
90 mm
Compression ratio
17.5:1
Maximum torque at 1800 r/min
32.8 N·m
Maximum power at 3000 r/min
9 kW
Tab.3
Variables
Measurement range
Measurement accuracy
CO
0%–15% (vol)
0.02% (vol)
CO2
0%–20% (vol)
0.3% (vol)
HC
0–30000 ppm (vol)
4 ppm (vol)
NO
0–5000 ppm (vol)
5 ppm (vol)
Tab.4
Fig.2
Independent parameters
Range and levels
–1
0
+ 1
x1: Percentage of water/%(vol)
5
7.5
10
x2: Percentage of surfactant/%(vol)
0.5
1.25
2
x3: HLB value
5
6.5
8
Tab.5
Run
Coded values
Real variables
x1
x2
x3
Percentage of water/%(vol)
Percentage of surfactant/ %(vol)
HLB value
1
0
0
0
7.5
1.25
6.5
2
+1
+1
0
10
2
6.5
3
0
+1
+1
7.5
2
8
4
–1
+1
0
5
2
6.5
5
+1
–1
0
10
0.5
6.5
6
–1
0
+1
5
1.25
8
7
0
–1
+1
7.5
0.5
8
8
0
0
0
7.5
1.25
6.5
9
+1
0
–1
10
1.25
5
10
0
0
0
7.5
1.25
6.5
11
0
+1
–1
7.5
2
5
12
0
–1
–1
7.5
0.5
5
13
0
0
0
7.5
1.25
6.5
14
–1
–1
0
5
0.5
6.5
15
+1
0
+1
10
1.25
8
16
–1
0
–1
5
1.25
5
17
0
0
0
7.5
1.25
6.5
Tab.6
Run
Real variable
Average droplet size/nm
PDI
Stability/h
x1
x2
x3
1 (The BBD most repeated)
7.5
1.25
6.5
503.4
0.413
168
4 (The highest stability)
5
2
6.5
373.5
0.266
216
15 (The lowest stability)
10
1.25
8
676.5
0.485
12
Tab.7
Fig.3
Reference
Emulsion fuel characteristic
Surfactant type
Emulsification time/ min
Stability duration
Hasannuddin et al. [45]
20% water (vol) 1% surfactant (vol)
Span 80
5
75 min
Bidita et al. [8]
1% water (vol) 0.4% surfactant (vol)
Triton X-100
10
16 days
Ghannam et al.[46]
10% water (vol) 0.2% surfactant (vol)
Triton X-100
2
4 weeks
Patil et al. [43]
10% water (vol) 5% surfactant (vol)
Span 80 and tween 80
20
30 days
Noor El-Din et al. [44]
5% water (vol) 10% surfactant (vol)
Span 80 and tween 80
5
2 weeks
Tab.8
The response
Correlation
T
Pb
BSFC
BTE
CO
HC
CO2
NOx
Tab.9
Run
Performance characteristics
T/(Nm)
Pb/kW
BSFC/(g·(kWh)–1)
BTE/%
Exp.
Pre.
Exp.
Pre.
Exp.
Pre.
Exp.
Pre.
1
19.85
19.85
3.78
3.78
391.61
391.80 436.82
24.43
24.41
2
19.27
19.23
3.67
3.66
437.80
25.27
25.23
3
19.56
19.58
3.72
3.73
397.46
398.33
23.76
23.78
4
19.86
19.85
3.79
3.78
386.60
388.47
22.65
22.60
5
19.35
19.36
3.69
3.69
410.99
409.12
24.32
24.36
6
19.89
19.88
3.79
3.79
374.69
371.96
22.60
22.63
7
19.76
19.73
3.76
3.75
371.24
373.00
23.67
23.61
8
19.88
19.85
3.79
3.78
392.84
391.80
24.40
24.41
9
19.15
19.16
3.65
3.65
420.66
423.40
25.00
24.97
10
19.86
19.85
3.78
3.78
389.83
391.80
24.46
24.41
11
19.47
19.50
3.71
3.71
405.54
403.78
24.13
24.19
12
19.65
19.63
3.74
3.74
387.07
386.20
23.33
23.32
13
19.83
19.85
3.77
3.78
391.35
391.80
24.41
24.41
14
19.95
20.00
3.80
3.81
372.28
373.26
22.40
22.44
15
19.30
19.33
3.68
3.68
416.49
416.60
24.57
24.59
16
19.90
19.87
3.78
3.78
383.92
383.81
22.40
22.37
17
19.83
19.85
3.78
3.78
393.38
391.80
24.38
24.41
Run
Emission characteristics
CO/%
HC/ppm
CO2/%
NOx/ppm
Exp.
Pre.
Exp.
Pre.
Exp.
Pre.
Exp.
Pre.
1
0.98
0.99
152
151.60
3.04
3.04
134
134.40
2
1.10
1.08
203
203.37
3.35
3.36
108
106.25
3
0.81
0.81
169
168.25
3.07
3.05
122
124.13
4
0.77
0.79
150
151.37
3.02
3.03
129
127.50
5
1.16
1.14
178
176.63
3.19
3.18
117
118.50
6
0.79
0.78
148
147.37
2.95
2.96
137
136.38
7
0.89
0.88
150
151.00
2.99
2.99
137
135.88
8
1.02
0.99
151
151.60
3.04
3.04
135
134.40
9
1.09
1.11
192
192.63
3.29
3.28
110
110.63
10
0.99
0.99
153
151.60
3.08
3.04
133
134.40
11
0.85
0.86
172
171.00
3.15
3.15
118
119.13
12
0.83
0.83
151
151.75
2.89
2.91
136
133.88
13
0.96
0.99
150
151.60
3.01
3.04
134
134.40
14
0.75
0.77
142
141.62
2.93
2.92
140
141.75
15
1.13
1.16
187
187.38
3.25
3.26
114
113.63
16
0.85
0.83
146
145.62
2.98
2.97
132
132.38
17
0.98
0.99
152
151.60
3.05
3.04
136
134.40
Tab.10
Source
Performance characteristics models
T/(N·m)
Pb/kW
BSFC/(g·(kWh)–1)
BTE/%
F-value
P-value
F-value
P-value
F-value
P-value
F-value
P-value
Model
80.85
<0.0001
67.61
<0.0001
100.86
<0.0001
474.75
<0.0001
x1
529.63
<0.0001
434.89
<0.0001
632.59
<0.0001
3353.16
<0.0001
x2
25.03
0.0016
23.00
0.0020
164.19
<0.0001
174.44
<0.0001
x3
9.57
0.0175
9.22
0.0190
31.03
0.0008
2.58
0.1519
x1x2
0.017
0.9013
0.035
0.8572
6.96
0.0336
40.30
0.0004
x1x3
4.24
0.0786
1.40
0.2757
1.14
0.3208
32.78
0.0007
x2x3
0.066
0.8044
0.000
1.0000
2.68
0.1458
40.63
0.0004
x12
59.61
0.0001
48.06
0.0002
65.85
<0.0001
239.18
<0.0001
x22
25.82
0.0014
19.74
0.0030
0.42
0.5357
154.41
<0.0001
x32
57.59
0.0001
58.29
0.0001
3.72
0.0951
169.86
<0.0001
Lack of fit
6.50
0.0511
2.56
0.1929
5.47
0.0672
5.53
0.0659
R2
0.9905
0.9886
0.9923
0.9984
Adj. R2
0.9782
0.9740
0.9825
0.9863
Pred. R2
0.8710
0.8743
0.8992
0.9784
Adeq. precision
27.968
25.514
35.719
66.991
CVa/%
0.2
0.21
0.6
0.23
SDb
0.039
8.03
2.37
0.056
Source
Emission characteristics models
CO/%
HC/ppm
CO2/%
NOx/ppm
F-value
P-value
F-value
P-value
F-value
P-value
F-value
P-value
Model
39.81
<0.0001
312.31
<0.0001
44.72
<0.0001
47.69
<0.0001
x1
283.91
<0.0001
1969.63
<0.0001
274.21
<0.0001
243.62
<0.0001
x2
1.63
0.2425
346.68
<0.0001
66.29
<0.0001
86.39
<0.0001
x3
0.000
1.0000
3.19
0.1174
0.48
0.5124
6.03
0.0438
x1x2
2.09
0.1919
37.60
0.0005
1.87
0.2142
0.25
0.6351
x1x3
3.26
0.1140
6.38
0.0395
0.038
0.8508
0.062
0.8112
x2x3
3.26
0.1140
0.52
0.4940
12.34
0.0098
0.55
0.4811
x12
8.56
0.0221
326.16
<0.0001
46.89
0.0002
65.48
<0.0001
x22
35.57
0.0006
43.39
0.0003
0.31
0.5925
9.02
0.0199
x32
20.09
0.0029
43.39
0.0003
0.92
0.3685
10.61
0.0139
Lack of fit
20.09
0.2089
2.12
0.2410
1.10
0.4469
5.96
0.0587
R2
0.9808
0.9975
0.9829
0.9840
Adj. R2
0.9562
0.9943
0.9609
0.9633
Pred. R2
0.7923
0.9741
0.8619
0.7856
Adeq. precision
18.006
58.083
22.964
22.959
CVa/%
2.95
0.86
0.83
1.58
SDb
0.028
1.39
0.026
2.02
Tab.11
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig.8
Fig.9
Fig.10
Fig.11
Optimum parameters
Value
Fixed parameters
Value
Water/% (vol)
5
Engine speed
1800 r/min
Surfactant/% (vol)
2
Engine load
100%
HLB
6.8
Response parameters
Predicted
Experimental Run 1
Experimental Run 2
Experimental Run 3
Average
Error /%
T/(N·m)
19.84
19.86
19.82
19.80
19.83
0.07
Pb/kW
3.781
3.786
3.780
3.788
3.785
0.10
BSFC/(g·(kWh)–1)
387.42
386.60
390.06
390.22
388.96
0.40
BTE/%
22.57
22.64
22.44
22.43
22.50
0.30
CO/%
0.77
0.79
0.75
0.81
0.78
1.70
HC/ppm
152.06
150
149
159
153
0.40
CO2/%
3.02
3.05
2.94
2.97
2.99
1.12
NOx/ppm
128.63
124
132
133
130
0.80
Tab.12
Response parameters
Best emulsion fuel
Neat diesel fuel
T/(N·m)
19.83
21.56
Pb/kW
3.785
4.12
BSFC/(g·(kWh)–1)
388.96
362.47
BTE/%
22.50
21.39
CO/%
0.78
0.69
HC/ppm
153
166
CO2/%
2.99
2.85
NOx/ppm
130
159
Tab.13
Fuel type/load/%
Engine performance
Exhaust emission
T/(N·m)
Pb/kW
BSFC/(g·(kWh)–1)
BTE/%
CO/%
HC/ppm
CO2/%
NOx/ppm
Best emulsion fuel/100
19.83
3.785
388.96
22.50
0.78
153
2.99
130
Neat diesel fuel/100
21.56
4.120
362.47
21.39
0.69
166
2.85
159
Best emulsion fuel/50
9.76
1.860
511.56
17.11
0.10
63
2.31
154
Neat diesel fuel/50
11.53
2.196
460.48
16.84
0.17
78
2.38
207
Tab.14
1
M R Seifi, S R Hassan-Beygia, B Ghobadian, U Desideri, M Antonelli. Experimental investigation of a diesel engine power, torque and noise emission using water–diesel emulsions. Fuel, 2016, 166: 392–399 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.10.122
2
N A Mazlan, W J Yahya, A M Ithnin, A K Hasannuddin, N A Ramlan, D A Sugeng, A R Muhammad Adib, T Koga, R Mamat, N A C Sidik. Effects of different water percentages in non-surfactant emulsion fuel on performance and exhaust emissions of a light-duty truck. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 179: 559–566 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.143
3
YH Tan, MO Abdullah, C Nolasco-Hipolito, N S Ahmad Zauzia, G W Abdullahb. Engine performance and emissions characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel-bioethanol emulsions. Energy Conversion and Management, 2017, 132: 54–64 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.11.013
4
A Alahmer, J Yamin, A Sakhrieh, M A Hamdan. Engine performance using emulsified diesel fuel. Energy Conversion and Management, 2010, 51(8): 1708–1713 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2009.11.044
5
W M Yang, H An, S K Chou, K J Chua, B Mohan, V Sivasankaralingam, V Raman, A Maghbouli, J Li. Impact of emulsion fuel with nano-organic additives on the performance of diesel engine. Applied Energy, 2013, 112(Supplement C): 1206–1212 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.02.027
6
M Abu-Zaid. Performance of single cylinder, direct injection diesel engine using water fuel emulsions. Energy Conversion and Management, 2004, 45(5): 697–705 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(03)00179-1
7
V Suresh, K S Amirthagadeswaran. Combustion and performance characteristics of water-in-diesel emulsion fuel. Energy Sources. Part A, Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2015, 37(18): 2020–2028 https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2015.1072605
8
B S Bidita, A R Suraya, A Shazed, M A Mohd Salleh, A Idris. Influence of fuel additive in the formulation and combustion characteristics of water-in-diesel nanoemulsion fuel. Energy & Fuels, 2014, 28(6): 4149–4161 https://doi.org/10.1021/ef5002259
9
A M Ithnin, M A Ahmad, M A A Bakar, S Rajoo, W J Yahya. Combustion performance and emission analysis of diesel engine fuelled with water-in-diesel emulsion fuel made from low-grade diesel fuel. Energy Conversion and Management, 2015, 90: 375–382 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.11.025
10
J S Basha, R B Anand. An experimental study in a CI engine using nanoadditive blended water–diesel emulsion fuel. International Journal of Green Energy, 2011, 8(3): 332–348 https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2011.557844
11
D Ogunkoya, S Li, O J Rojas, T Fang. Performance, combustion, and emissions in a diesel engine operated with fuel-in-water emulsions based on lignin. Applied Energy, 2015, 154: 851–861 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.05.036
12
A Alahmer. Influence of using emulsified diesel fuel on the performance and pollutants emitted from diesel engine. Energy Conversion and Management, 2013, 73: 361–369 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.05.012
13
A M A Attia, A R Kulchitskiy. Influence of the structure of water-in-fuel emulsion on diesel engine performance. Fuel, 2014, 116: 703–708 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.08.057
14
W Yang, H An, S K Chou, S Vedharaji, R Vallinagam, M Balaji, F E A Mohammad, K J E Chua. Emulsion fuel with novel nano-organic additives for diesel engine application. Fuel, 2013, 104: 726–731 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.04.051
15
S Henningsen. Influence of the fuel injection equipment on NOx emissions and particulates on a large heavy-duty two-stroke diesel engine operating on water-in-fuel emulsion. SAE Technical Paper, 1994
16
M Nadeem, C Rangkuti, K Anuar, M R U Haq, I B Tan, S S Shah. Diesel engine performance and emission evaluation using emulsified fuels stabilized by conventional and gemini surfactants. Fuel, 2006, 85(14–15): 2111–2119 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.03.013
17
R Ochoterena, A Lif, M Nydén, S Andersson, I Denbratt. Optical studies of spray development and combustion of water-in-diesel emulsion and microemulsion fuels. Fuel, 2010, 89(1): 122–132 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2009.06.039
18
K A Subramanian. A comparison of water–diesel emulsion and timed injection of water into the intake manifold of a diesel engine for simultaneous control of NO and smoke emissions. Energy Conversion and Management, 2011, 52(2): 849–857 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2010.08.010
19
C Y Lin, L W Chen. Engine performance and emission characteristics of three-phase diesel emulsions prepared by an ultrasonic emulsification method. Fuel, 2006, 85(5–6): 593–600 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2005.09.007
20
C Y Lin, H A Lin. Engine performance and emission characteristics of a three-phase emulsion of biodiesel produced by peroxidation. Fuel Processing Technology, 2007, 88(1): 35–41 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2006.07.008
21
R R Hegde, P Sharma, P Raj, R V Keny, P J Bhide, S Kumar, S S Bhattacharya, A Lohani, A Kumar, A Verma, P Chakraborty, A Ghosh, V Trivedi. Factors affecting emissions from diesel fuel and water-in-diesel emulsion. Energy Sources. Part A, Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2016, 38(12): 1771–1778 https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2014.989341
22
P Ramakrishnan, R Kasimani, M S Peer. Optimization in the performance and emission parameters of a DI diesel engine fuelled with pentanol added Calophyllum inophyllum/diesel blends using response surface methodology. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 2018, 25(29): 29115–29128 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2867-4
23
S Vellaiyan, A Subbiah, P Chockalingam. Multi-response optimization to obtain better performance and emission level in a diesel engine fueled with water-biodiesel emulsion fuel and nanoadditive. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 2019, 26(5): 4833–4841 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3979-6
24
E Khalife, M Tabatabaei, A Demirbas, M Aghbashlo. Impacts of additives on performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines during steady state operation. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 2017, 59: 32–78 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2016.10.001
25
J S Basha, R Anand. An experimental investigation in a diesel engine using carbon nanotubes blended water–diesel emulsion fuel. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Part A, Journal of Power and Energy, 2011, 225(3): 279–288 https://doi.org/10.1177/2041296710394247
26
Z B Chen, X C Wang, Y Q Pei, C Zhang, M Xiao, J He. Experimental investigation of the performance and emissions of diesel engines by a novel emulsified diesel fuel. Energy Conversion and Management, 2015, 95: 334–341 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.02.016
27
V W Khond, V M Kriplani. Effect of nanofluid additives on performances and emissions of emulsified diesel and biodiesel fueled stationary CI engine: a comprehensive review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 59: 1338–1348 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.051
28
A A Abdel-Rehim, S Y Akl. An experimental investigation of the effect of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nanoparticles as fuel additive on the performance and emissions of a diesel engine. SAE Technical Paper, 2016 https://doi.org/10.4271/2016-01-0828
29
M E A Fahd, Y Wenming, P S Lee, S K Chou, C R Yap. Experimental investigation of the performance and emission characteristics of direct injection diesel engine by water emulsion diesel under varying engine load condition. Applied Energy, 2013, 102: 1042–1049 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.06.041
30
H Raheman, S Kumari. Combustion characteristics and emissions of a compression ignition engine using emulsified jatropha biodiesel blend. Biosystems Engineering, 2014, 123(Supplement C): 29–39 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.05.001
31
A B Koc, M Abdullah. Performance and NOx emissions of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel-diesel-water nanoemulsions. Fuel Processing Technology, 2013, 109(Supplement C): 70–77 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2012.09.039
32
B K Debnath, N Sahoo, U K Saha. Adjusting the operating characteristics to improve the performance of an emulsified palm oil methyl ester run diesel engine. Energy Conversion and Management, 2013, 69: 191–198 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.01.031
33
L Feng, B G Du, J P Tian, W Long, B Tang. Combustion performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine using a water-emulsified heavy fuel oil and light diesel blend. Energies, 2015, 8(12): 13628–13640 https://doi.org/10.3390/en81212387
34
A K Wamankar, S Murugan. Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine with internal jet piston using carbon black-water-diesel emulsion. Energy, 2015, 91: 1030–1037 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.08.085
35
J Sadhik Basha, R B Anand. Role of nanoadditive blended biodiesel emulsion fuel on the working characteristics of a diesel engine. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 2011, 3(2): 023106 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3575169
36
B J Sadhik. AnandR.Effects of nanoparticle additive in the water-diesel emulsion fuel on the performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine. International Journal of Vehicle Design, 2012, 59(2–3): 164–181
37
A Hasannuddin, J Y Wira, S Sarah, W M N Wan Syaidatul Aqma, A R Abdul Hadi, N Hirofumi, S A Aizam, M A B Aiman, S Watanabe, M I Ahmad, M A Azrin. Performance, emissions and lubricant oil analysis of diesel engine running on emulsion fuel. Energy Conversion and Management, 2016, 117: 548–557 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.057
38
M Senthil Kumar, M Jaikumar. A comprehensive study on performance, emission and combustion behavior of a compression ignition engine fuelled with WCO (waste cooking oil) emulsion as fuel. Journal of the Energy Institute, 2014, 87(3): 263–271 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2014.03.001
39
K Kannan, M Udayakumar. NOx and HC emission control using water emulsified diesel in single cylinder diesel engine. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences (Asian Research Publishing Network), 2009, 4(8): 59–62
40
D A Sugeng, W J Yahya, A M Ithnin, M A Abdul Rashid, N S Mohd Syahril Amri, H Abd Kadir, M N Abdul Halim. Diesel engine emission analysis using fuel from diverse emulsification methods. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 2018, 25(27): 27214–27224 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2760-1
41
P K Mondal, B K Mandal. Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine using water emulsified diesel prepared by ultrasonication. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering, 2018, 40(11): 510 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-018-1419-7
42
M A Bezerra, R E Santelli, E P Oliveira, L S Villar, L A Escaleira. Response surface methodology (RSM) as a tool for optimization in analytical chemistry. Talanta, 2008, 76(5): 965–977 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2008.05.019
43
H Patil, A Gadhave, S Mane, J Waghmare. Analyzing the stability of the water-in-diesel fuel emulsion. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2015, 36(9): 1221–1227 https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2014.962039
44
M R Noor El-Din, S H El-Hamouly, H M Mohamed, M R Mishrif, A M Ragab. Water-in-diesel fuel nanoemulsions: Preparation, stability and physical properties. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum, 2013, 22(4): 517–530 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2013.11.006
45
A K Hasannuddin, M I Ahmad, M Zahari, S S Mohd, A B Aiman, S A Aizam, J Y Wira. Stability studies of water-in-diesel emulsion. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 2014, 663: 54–57 https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.663.54
46
M T Ghannam, M Y Selim. Stability behavior of water-in-diesel fuel emulsion. Petroleum Science and Technology, 2009, 27(4): 396–411 https://doi.org/10.1080/10916460701783969
47
M Y E Selim, M T Ghannam. Combustion study of stabilized water-in-diesel fuel emulsion. Energy Sources. Part A, Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2009, 32(3): 256–274 https://doi.org/10.1080/15567030802467621