A review on the development of electrolytes for lithium-based batteries for low temperature applications

doi:10.1007/s11708-022-0853-5

Front. Energy

2023, Vol. 17

Issue (1) : 43-71 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-022-0853-5

REVIEW ARTICLE

A review on the development of electrolytes for lithium-based batteries for low temperature applications

Jason A. MENNEL¹, Dev CHIDAMBARAM²(

)

¹. Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Nevada−Reno, Reno, NV 89557, USA
². Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Nevada Institute for Sustainability, University of Nevada−Reno, Reno, NV 89557, USA

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Abstract

The aerospace industry relies heavily on lithium-ion batteries in instrumentation such as satellites and land rovers. This equipment is exposed to extremely low temperatures in space or on the Martian surface. The extremely low temperatures affect the discharge characteristics of the battery and decrease its available working capacity. Various solvents, cosolvents, additives, and salts have been researched to fine tune the conductivity, solvation, and solid-electrolyte interface forming properties of the electrolytes. Several different resistive phenomena have been investigated to precisely determine the most limiting steps during charge and discharge at low temperatures. Longer mission lifespans as well as self-reliance on the chemistry are now highly desirable to allow low temperature performance rather than rely on external heating components. As Martian rovers are equipped with greater instrumentation and demands for greater energy storage rise, new materials also need to be adopted involving next generation lithium-ion chemistry to increase available capacity. With these objectives in mind, tailoring of the electrolyte with higher-capacity materials such as lithium metal and silicon anodes at low temperatures is of high priority. This review paper highlights the progression of electrolyte research for low temperature performance of lithium-ion batteries over the previous several decades.

Keywords electrolyte lithium-ion low temperature aerospace solid-electrolyte interface

Corresponding Author(s): Dev CHIDAMBARAM

Online First Date: 09 February 2023 Issue Date: 29 March 2023

Cite this article:

Jason A. MENNEL,Dev CHIDAMBARAM. A review on the development of electrolytes for lithium-based batteries for low temperature applications[J]. Front. Energy, 2023, 17(1): 43-71.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/10.1007/s11708-022-0853-5
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/Y2023/V17/I1/43

Tab.1 Theoretical and practical specific capacities of commonly used mixed metal oxides [28–32]

Fig.1 Migration processes during the discharge of a lithium-ion cell. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [39].

Fig.2 Physical properties of alkyl carbonates. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [20].

Fig.3 Comparison of three electrolyte systems.

Fig.4 Physical properties and discharge capacities of various electrolyte systems.

Tab.2 Specific reversible and irreversible capacities of graphite anode in AA-size lithium-ion cells comparing binary and ternary carbonate electrolytes [9]

Tab.3 Polarization and impedance results for lithium deintercalation reaction in binary and ternary solvents at various temperatures [9]

Fig.5 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots of graphite anode in various electrolytes containing 1 mol/L LiPF₆ at 0 °C (a) and ?20 °C (b). Reprinted with permission Ref. [9]. Image enhanced from original reference.

Fig.6 Tafel polarization measurements at different temperatures demonstrating higher anodic current densities except at ?40 °C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [20].

Tab.4 Structures and physical properties of a few low and high molecular weight ester cosolvents [26]

Tab.5 Reversible and irreversible capacities (at 25 °C and ?20 °C) of lithium-carbon cells containing the following electrolyte solutions: (1) 0.75 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + DEC + DMC (1:1:1); (2) 0.75 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + DEC + DMC + MA (1:1:1:1); (3) 0.75 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + DEC + DMC + EA (1:1:1:1); (4) 0.75 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + DEC + DMC + EP (1:1:1:1); and (5) 0.75 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + DEC + DMC + EB (1:1:1:1) [25]

Fig.7 Variation in the conductivity of different electrolyte solutions with temperature and the effect of electrolyte type upon the discharge capacity of cells at different temperature.

Fig.8 Exchange current density at A) 23 °C (initial measurement after formation), B) 0 °C, C) ?20 °C, and D) 23 °C (after cycling) for lithium intercalation/deintercalation into graphite in contact with electrolyte solutions containing 0.75 mol/L LiPF₆ in (1) baseline, (2) MA, (3) EA, (4) EP, and (5) EB cosolvents. Reprinted with permission form Ref. [25].

Tab.6 Comparison of the formation cycle characteristics of lithium-ion cells containing EC-based carbonate mixtures with or without ester cosolvents (20%) [41]

Fig.9 Discharge capacity (% of room temperature) of experimental lithium-ion cells containing electrolytes composed of 1 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + EMC + X (20:60:20 vol. %). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [41].

Fig.10 EIS-derived series resistance values for full cells. The electrolyte formulation containing the ester cosolvent methyl propionate (MP) demonstrated the least resistance at temperatures below ?20 °C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [41].

Fig.11 Tafel polarization measurements at ?60 °C for lithium-ion cells containing electrolytes composed of 1 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + EMC + X (20:60:20 vol. %) (X = MP, EP, MB, EB, PB, or BB). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [41].

Fig.12 Discharge capacity and cycle life of a Yardney 8 Ah lithium-ion cell.

Fig.13 Discharge capacity and partial DOD cycling of a 43 Ah lithium-ion cell.

Fig.14 Comparison of heritage NCO and next-generation NCA 25 Ah nameplate lithium-ion cells

Fig.15 Discharge capacity (Ah) of a next-generation NCA 25 Ah nameplate lithium-ion cell delivered at ?30 °C after being charged at room temperature and charged at ?30 °C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [18].

Fig.16 Examples of partially fluorinated ester cosolvents: (1) 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl butyrate (TFEB); (2) 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl acetate (TFEA); (3) ethyl trifluoroacetate (ETFA); (4) 2,2,2 trifluoroethyl propionate; (5) methyl pentafluoropropionate (MPFP) that displayed satisfactory low-temperature performance. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44].

Fig.17 Cyclic voltammetry of fluoroester-mixed electrolytes with a scan rate of 10 mV/s. Fifth cycle depicted. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44].

Fig.18 Discharge capacity of a cell containing 1 mol/L LiPF₆ in EC:EMC:TFEB (20:60:20, vol.%) when charged at ?20 °C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44].

Tab.7 Formation characteristics of lithium-ion cells containing MB-based electrolytes with various additives [22]

Fig.19 Discharge capacities of lithium-ion cells containing methyl butyrate (MB)-based electrolytes with and without various additives. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22].

Fig.20 High temperature cycling performance of lithium-ion cells with MB-based electrolytes with and without different additives. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22].

Fig.21 EIS results at 23 °C containing MB-based electrolytes with and without different additives. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [22].

Fig.22 Tafel polarization measurements at ?30 °C in lithium-ion cells containing MB-based electrolytes with and without additives. Reprinted with permission form Ref. [22].

Fig.23 Ternary electrolyte containing LiBOB exhibiting a discharge plateau indicative of lithium stripping. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [23].

Fig.24 Estimated lithium stripped during discharge as a percentage of discharge capacity at specified temperature for the baseline electrolyte (1 mol/L LiPF₆ EC + EMC + MP (20:20:60, vol.%)) alone or with additives. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [23].

Fig.25 Comparison of ionic conductivities between carbonate- and ether-based electrolytes. Carbonate and ether electrolytes contain LiPF₆ and LiTFSI, respectively. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [51].

Fig.26 Cycling performance of lithium metal cells containing LiFSI in DOO/DME or LiFSI in DEE electrolytes at ?60 °C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [52].

Fig.27 Temperature-dependent morphology of electrodeposited Li on stainless steel foils using a current density of 0.5 mA/cm² using either pure ether electrolyte or carbonate-modified ether electrolytes. (a, d) Samples deposited using pure ether electrolyte at ?20 °C and ?60 °C; (b, e) samples deposited using the FEC-modified ether electrolyte at ?20 °C and ?60 °C; (c, f) samples deposited using EC-modified ether electrolyte at ?20°C and ?60°C. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [53].

Fig.28 Timeline of electrolyte design for low-temperature lithium-based batteries over the previous two decades.

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