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Frontiers in Energy

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Front. Energy    2023, Vol. 17 Issue (1) : 16-42    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-023-0866-8
REVIEW ARTICLE
Liquid-based high-temperature receiver technologies for next-generation concentrating solar power: A review of challenges and potential solutions
Ya-Ling HE1(), Wenqi WANG1, Rui JIANG1, Mingjia LI2, Wenquan TAO1
1. Key Laboratory of Thermo-Fluid Science and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
2. School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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Abstract

To reduce the levelized cost of energy for concentrating solar power (CSP), the outlet temperature of the solar receiver needs to be higher than 700 °C in the next-generation CSP. Because of extensive engineering application experience, the liquid-based receiver is an attractive receiver technology for the next-generation CSP. This review is focused on four of the most promising liquid-based receivers, including chloride salts, sodium, lead-bismuth, and tin receivers. The challenges of these receivers and corresponding solutions are comprehensively reviewed and classified. It is concluded that combining salt purification and anti-corrosion receiver materials is promising to tackle the corrosion problems of chloride salts at high temperatures. In addition, reducing energy losses of the receiver from sources and during propagation is the most effective way to improve the receiver efficiency. Moreover, resolving the sodium fire risk and material compatibility issues could promote the potential application of liquid-metal receivers. Furthermore, using multiple heat transfer fluids in one system is also a promising way for the next-generation CSP. For example, the liquid sodium is used as the heat transfer fluid while the molten chloride salt is used as the storage medium. In the end, suggestions for future studies are proposed to bridge the research gaps for > 700 °C liquid-based receivers.
Keywords next-generation concentrating solar power      liquid-based solar receiver      molten salt      liquid metals     
Corresponding Author(s): Ya-Ling HE   
Online First Date: 06 March 2023    Issue Date: 29 March 2023
 Cite this article:   
Ya-Ling HE,Wenqi WANG,Rui JIANG, et al. Liquid-based high-temperature receiver technologies for next-generation concentrating solar power: A review of challenges and potential solutions[J]. Front. Energy, 2023, 17(1): 16-42.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/10.1007/s11708-023-0866-8
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/Y2023/V17/I1/16
Fig.1  Framework of this paper.
Fig.2  Corrosion resistance methods.
AlloysChloride salt componentsT/°CAtmospherevcorrosion /(μm?a–1)
Haynes 230 [56]Mg/K (32/68 mol.%)800Ar16.14
Haynes 230 [48]Mg/K/Na (45.3/40.6/13.9 wt.%)800N2259 ± 28
Haynes 230 [48]Mg/K/Na (45.3/40.6/13.9 wt.%) & 0.1 wt.%Mg800N2< 30
Hastelloy C-276 [61]Mg/K/Na (60/20/20 mol.%)700Ar79
Hastelloy C-276 [56]Mg/K (32/68 mol.%)800Ar10.03
Inconel 800H [61]Mg/K/Na (55.1/20.4/24.5 wt.%)700Ar364
SS 310 [61]Mg/K/Na (60/20/20 mol.%)700Ar1581
Tab.1  Corrosion rate of different alloys in chloride salts at high temperatures
Fig.3  Heat transfer processes of solar receiver.
Fig.4  Energy losses analysis of receiver at different outlet temperatures.
Fig.5  Summarization of energy losses reduction methods for high-temperature receivers.
Fig.6  Schematic diagram of SSCs.
Fig.7  Schematic diagram of a tube with SSC and anti-corrosion coating.
Fig.8  Structures of a nano-structure coating with pyramid structure (adapted with permission from Ref. [86]).
Fig.9  A procedure for design of nanostructure coating used in a solar receiver.
Fig.10  Optical-thermal calculation framework for receiver with nano-structured SSC (adapted with permission from Ref. [78]).
Fig.11  Schematic diagram of three typical nanostructured coatings (adapted with permission from Ref. [78]).
Type Structure/materials α ε Thermal stability test Ref.
Metal-dielectric multilayer coating 0.954 0.149 700 °C, 1 h, air Yang et al. [ 87]
Ceramic-metal coating 0.93 0.52 750 °C, 700 h, air Wang et al. [ 88]
Ceramic-metal coating 0.93 0.26 727 °C, 150 h, vacuum Li et al. [ 89]
Nanostructured coating 0.95 0.1 800 °C, > 5 h, vacuum Li et al. [ 86]
Nanostructured coating 0.9 0.05 1200 °C, 24 h, (0.05H2, 0.95Ar) Chirumamilla et al. [ 90]
Tab.2  Optical and temperature-resistance characteristics of current SSCs developed
Fig.12  Schematic of the receiver with pyramid-shape tubes (adapted with permission from Ref. [91]).
Fig.13  Schematic of cavity receiver with pyramid-shape elements (adapted with permission from Ref. [93]).
Fig.14  Multi-reflection between finned structures (adapted with permission from Ref. [100]).
Fig.15  A prototype of a mesoscale fin-like receiver (adapted from Refs. [98,99]).
Fig.16  Fin-like receiver design with the same tube weight (adapted with permission from Ref. [100]).
Fig.17  Conceptual design of fin-like receiver with the same receiver diameter (adapted with permission from Ref. [74]).
Fig.18  A multi-scale receiver design by coming macro-scale finned structures and micro-scale SSC (adapted with permission from Ref. [14]).
Fig.19  A multiscale receiver with macroscale fin-like structures and nanoscale light-trapping cone structures (adapted with permission from Ref. [101]).
Fig.20  Schematic of multi-aperture receivers (adapted with permission from Ref. [103]).
Fig.21  Multi-aperture receiver with compound parabolic concentrator (adapted from Ref. [104]).
Fig.22  Energy propagation processes of receiver covered with transparent aerogel.
Fig.23  Transmission spectrum of a low scattering aerogel and soda-lime glass slide (adapted with permission from Ref. [106]).
Heat transfer fluidsDensity/(kg·m?3)Temperature range/KMelting point/°CRef.
MgCl21976–0.302T–714Li et al. [109]
KCl2135.9–0.5831T1060–1200770Li et al. [110]
NaCl2139.3–0.543T1080–1290801Li et al. [109]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.98/38.91/15.11 wt.%)1958.8438–0.56355 (T–273.15)723.15–973.15401.4Wang et al. [111]
Mg/K chlorides (32/68 mol.%)1903.7–0.552 (T–273.15)723.15–1073.15424.4Xu et al. [73]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.31/38.70/15.99 wt.%)?0.5878 (T–273.15) + 1974.0723.15–973.15450Zhao [48]
Tab.3  Equations of density against temperature for chloride salts
Heat transfer fluidsHeat capacityUnitTemperature range/KRef.
KCl987.24J·(kg·K)?11044–2000Li et al. [110]
NaCl?42.4478 + 113.526(T/1000) –43.6466(T/1000)2 + 5.89663(T/1000)3+ 39.1386/(T/1000)2J·(mol·K)?11074–2500Li et al. [110]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.98/38.91/15.11 wt.%)1.30138 ? 0.0005 (T–273.15)J·(g·K)?1723.15–903.15Wang et al. [111]
Mg/K chlorides (32/68 mol.%)989.6 + 0.1046 (T–273.15)J·(g·K)?1723.15–1073.15Xu et al. [73]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.31/38.70/15.99 wt.%)1.284 × 10?6 (T–273.15)2 – 1.843 × 10?3 (T–273.15) + 1.661J·(g·K)?1723.15–973.15Zhao [48]
Tab.4  Equations of heat capacity against temperature for chloride salts
Heat transfer fluidsThermal conductivity/(W·(m·K) ?1)Temperature range/KRef.
MgCl2418.68(?8.571 × 10?3 + 11.231 × 10?6T)–Li et al. [109]
KCl418.4(?23.43 × 10?4 + 4.103 × 10?6T)1050–1200Li et al. [110]
NaCl418.4(1.868 × 10?3 + 4.73 × 10?7T)1100–1200Li et al. [110]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.98/38.91/15.11 wt.%)0.5822 – 0.00026 (T–273.15)723.15–973.15Wang et al. [111]
Mg/K chlorides (32/68 mol.%)0.5047 – 0.0001 (T–273.15)723.15–1073.15Xu et al. [73]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.31/38.70/15.99 wt.%)7.151 × 10?7 (T–273.15)2 – 1.066 × 10?3 (T–273.15) + 0.811723.15–973.15Zhao [48]
Tab.5  Equations of thermal conductivity against temperature for chloride salts
Heat transfer fluidsViscosityUnitTemperature range/KRef.
MgCl214.903 – 2.039 × 10?2T + 7.625 × 10?6T10?3Pa·s–Li et al. [109]
KCl0.0732e5601.7/(1.98716T)10?3Pa·s1070–1170Li et al. [110]
NaCl0.08931e5248.1/(1.98716T)10?3Pa·s1090–1200Li et al. [110]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.98/38.91/15.11 wt.%)0.70645e1204.11348/T10?3Pa·s723.15–973.15Wang et al. [111]
Mg/K chlorides (32/68 mol.%)1.784 × 10?8 (T–273.15)2 – 2.91 × 10?5 (T–273.15) + 0.014965Pa·s723.15–1073.15Xu et al. [73]
Mg/K/Na chlorides (45.31/38.70/15.99 wt.%)0.689e1224.73/T10?3Pa·s723.15–973.15Zhao [48]
Tab.6  Equations of viscosity against temperature for chloride salts
Heat transfer fluidsHeat transfer correlationsRef.
Chloride molten saltNu=(f/8)(Re?1000)Pr1+12.7(f/8)1/2(Pr2/3?1)(μμw)0.14Martinek et al. [118]
Chloride molten saltNu=(f/8)(Re?1000)Pr1+12.7(f/8)1/2(Pr2/3?1)Wang et al. [119]
Nitrate molten saltNu=(f/8)(Re?1000)Pr1+12.7(f/8)1/2(Pr2/3?1)(μμw)0.14Xu et al. [120]
Chloride molten saltNu=0.0154Re0.853Pr0.35(μμw)0.14Wang et al. [19]
Tab.7  Heat transfer correlations for molten salts
Fig.24  Summarization of key issues for liquid metal receivers.
Fig.25  Nuclear reactor cavity with the cover gas system (adapted with permission from Ref. [137]).
Alloysvcorrosion (300 °C)/(μm?a–1)vcorrosion (600 °C)/(μm?a–1)vcorrosion (800 °C) /(μm?a–1)
Pure iron< 25.4< 25.4< 25.4
Mild-carbon steel< 25.425.4–254> 25.4
2%–9% chromium steal< 25.4< 25.425.4–254
Ferritic stainless steel (12%–27% Cr)< 25.4< 25.4< 25.4
Austenitic stainless steel (18%–25% Cr, 8%–20% Ni)< 25.4< 25.4< 25.4
Nickel alloys (with Fe, Cr, Mo)< 25.4< 25.4< 25.4
Nickel alloys (with copper)< 25.4< 25.425.4–254
Tab.8  Corrosion rate of different alloys in liquid sodium at different temperatures
Fig.26  Schematic of the “cold trap” method (adapted with permission from Ref. [146]).
Fig.27  Picture of SOMMER facility on-axis arrangement (adapted with permission from Ref. [153]).
Heat transfer fluidsDensity/(kg·m?3)Range of T/KRef.
Liquid sodium219 + 275.32(1 – T/2503.7) + 511.58(1 – T/2503.7)2371–2503Fink&Leibowitz [174]
Liquid lead-bismuth (Pb/Bi 44.5/55.5 wt.%)11096 – 1.3236T400–1300Sobolev [175]
Liquid tin6979 – 0.652(T – 505.08)506–1950Assael et al. [176]; Humrickhouse [177]
Tab.9  Equations of density against temperature for liquid metals
Heat transfer fluidsHeat capacityUnitRange of T/KRef.
Liquid sodium1.6582–0.0008479T + 4.4541 × 10?7T2 – 29992.6T?2kJ·(kg·K)?1371–2500Fink&Leibowitz [174]
Liquid lead-bismuth (Pb/Bi 44.5/55.5 wt.%)159–2.72 × 10?2T + 7.12 × 10?6T2J·(kg·K)?1400–1100Sobolev [175]
Liquid tin9.97 – 9.15 × 10?3T + 6.5 × 10?6T2cal·(mol·K)?1505–1073Chapman [178]
Tab.10  Equations of heat capacity against temperature for liquid metals
Heat transfer fluidsThermal conductivity/(W·(m·K)?1)Range of T/KRef.
Liquid sodium124.67–0.11381T + 5.5226 × 10?5T2–1.1842 × 10?8T3371–1500Fink&Leibowitz [174]
Liquid lead-bismuth (Pb/Bi 44.5/55.5 wt.%)3.61 + 1.517 × 10?2T – 1.74110?6T2400–1300Sobolev [175]
Liquid tin13.90 + 0.02868T506–1170Savchenko et al. [179]
Tab.11  Equations of thermal conductivity against temperature for liquid metals
Heat transfer fluidsViscosityUnitRange of T/KRef.
Liquid sodiume(?6.4406-0.3958lnT+556.835/T)Pa·s371–2500Fink&Leibowitz [174]
Liquid lead-bismuth (Pb/Bi 44.5/55.5 wt.%)4.94 × 10?4e(6270/RT)Pa·s400–1100Sobolev [175]
Liquid tin3.908 × 10?4e(790.7/T)Pa·s506–1280Assael et al. [176]; Humrickhouse [177]
Tab.12  Equations of viscosity against temperature for liquid metals
Heat transfer fluidsHeat transfer correlationsRef.
Liquid sodiumNu=7.0+0.025(Re?Pr)0.8Lorenzin & Abanades [163]
Liquid lead-bismuthNu=4.5+0.014(Re?Pr)0.8,Re?Pr<1000Nu=5.4?9×10?4+0.014(Re?Pr)0.8,1000<Re?Pr<2000Lorenzin & Abanades [163]
Tab.13  Heat transfer correlations for liquid sodium and lead-bismuth
QabThermal energy absorbed by the heat transfer fluid/W
QinSolar energy concentrated to receiver/W
QconvConvective energy loss of the receiver/W
QrefReflected energy loss of the receiver/W
QradRadiative thermal loss of the receiver/W
RUniversal gas constant/(8.314 J·(mol·K)?1)
ηrReceiver efficiency
TTemperature/K
TinInlet temperature of the receiver/K
ToutInlet temperature of the receiver/K
vcorrosionCorrosion rate/(μm·a?1)
αAbsorption
εEmissivity
CSPConcentrating solar power
FDTDFinite-different time-domain
FVMFinite volume method
HTFHeat transfer fluid
LBELead-bismuth eutectic
LCOELevelized cost of energy
MCRTMonte carlo ray tracing
MDMCMetal-dielectric multilayer coatings
PSAPlataforma solar de almeria
SPTSolar power tower
SSCSolar selective coating
  
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