Microorganism-derived biological macromolecules for tissue engineering
Naser Amini1,2, Peiman Brouki Milan1,2,3(), Vahid Hosseinpour Sarmadi1,2, Bahareh Derakhshanmehr2, Ahmad Hivechi1,4, Fateme Khodaei5, Masoud Hamidi6, Sara Ashraf7, Ghazaleh Larijani7, Alireza Rezapour8,9()
1. Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1591639675, Iran 2. Institutes of Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran 3. Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran 4. Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Minnesota, MN 55455, USA 5. Burn Research Center, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1591639675, Iran 6. Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Paramedicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht 4477166595, Iran 7. Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 1477893855, Iran 8. Cellular and Molecular Research Centre, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom 3715835155, Iran 9. Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom 3715835155, Iran
According to literature, certain microorganism productions mediate biological effects. However, their beneficial characteristics remain unclear. Nowadays, scientists concentrate on obtaining natural materials from live creatures as new sources to produce innovative smart biomaterials for increasing tissue reconstruction in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The present review aims to introduce microorganism-derived biological macromolecules, such as pullulan, alginate, dextran, curdlan, and hyaluronic acid, and their available sources for tissue engineering. Growing evidence indicates that these materials can be used as biological material in scaffolds to enhance regeneration in damaged tissues and contribute to cosmetic and dermatological applications. These natural-based materials are attractive in pharmaceutical, regenerative medicine, and biomedical applications. This study provides a detailed overview of natural-based biomaterials, their chemical and physical properties, and new directions for future research and therapeutic applications.
Fungus Aureobasidium, Fungus Tremella mesenterica, Rhodotorula bacarum, Hypovirulent strains of Cryphonectria parasitica, and C. parasitica
[ 39]
Dextran
Leuconostoc, Weissella, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides
[ 40]
Hyaluronic acid
Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus uberis, Pasteurella multocida, and Cryptococcusneoformans
[ 41]
Bacterial cellulose
Gram-negative bacteria species, such as Acetobacter, Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Pseudomonas, and Salmonella, Alcaligenes, and Gram-positive bacteria species, such as Sarcinaventriculi
[ 42]
Tab.2
Parameter
Eur. Ph. 8.0
USP 32-NF 27
The appearance of the solid product
White or pale yellowish-brown powder
n.d.
Content
n.d.
90.8%–106.0% of the dried basis
Packaging and storage
n.d.
Preserved in tight containers
Solubility
Slowly soluble in water, practically insoluble in 96% ethanol
n.d.
Appearance of solution
Not more opalescent than reference formazin suspension in water and not more intensely colored than intensity 6 of the range of reference solutions of the most appropriate color
n.d.
Heavy metals
≤20 ppm
≤ 0.004%
Chlorides
≤1.0%
n.d.
Calcium
≤1.5%
n.d.
Arsenic
n.d.
≤ 1.5 ppm
Loss on drying
≤15.0%
≤ 15.0%
Total ash
n.d.
18.0%–27.0%
Sulfated ash
30.0%–36.0%
n.d.
Microbial limits
TAMC: ≤1000 cfu/gTYMC: ≤100 cfu/g
≤ 200 cfu/g
Absence of specifiedmicroorganisms
Salmonella sp.,Escherichia coli
Salmonella sp., E. coli
Tab.3
EPS’ type
Additional material
Scaffold type and fabrication technique
Application
Reference
Alginate
Polyurethane and cobalt
A hybrid cobalt-doped alginate/waterborne polyurethane 3D porous scaffold with nano-topology of a “coral reef-like” rough surface via two-step freeze–drying method
Nerve repair
[100]
Chitosan
Using the lyophilization method, polypyrrole–alginate (PPy–Alg) mix is combined with chitosan to create polypyrrole–alginate (PPy–Alg) conducting scaffold
Bone tissue engineering
[101]
Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)
Chemically cross-linked alginate networks are created in the PEDOT/Alg scaffold utilizing adipic acid hydrazide as the crosslinker, and PEDOT is generated in situ in the alginate matrix at the same time
A platform for controlling cell behavior
[102]
Bovine serum albumin and hydroxyapatite nanowires
The freeze–dried hydrogel scaffold is immersed in an aqueous solution of CaCl2 A dual-network bovine serum albumin/sodium alginate with hydroxyapatite nanowires composite (B-S-H) hydrogel scaffold
Cartilage tissue engineering
[103]
Poly (caprolactone) and CNC nanoparticles
Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/CaAlg nanofibers are successfully produced using hybrid electrospinning
Wound healing
[104]
Cardiac ECM and chitosan
Using freeze–drying method, cardiac tissue is prepared by decellularization technique, and the different concentrations of the solubilized ECM and chitosan/alginate are prepared and finally freeze-dried
Cardiac tissue engineering
[105]
Dextran
β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP)
A dextran nanocomposite hydrogelBy dispersion of β-TCP in the aqueous solution and adding epichlorohydrin (ECH) 12 v/v% as a chemical cross-linking agent
Bone regeneration
[106]
No
Electrospun dextran nanofibers cross-linked using boric acid
Wound dressing
[107]
PVA and ciprofloxacin
Core-shell nanofibers are fabricated by emulsion electrospinning from PVA/dextran
As a drug delivery system
[108]
Cellulose nanocrystal and gelatin
Extrusion-based 3D printing method
This hydrogel is suggested as a 3D bioink for application in tissue repair
[109]
Pullulan
PVA
Aerogel composites are synthesized by impregnating nanofibrous pullulan-PVA scaffolds with hydrophobic silica aerogel
Tissue regeneration
[110]
Gelatin
Electrospinning
Tissue regeneration
[111]
Collagen
Hydrogel
Wound healing
[112]
Polyethyleneglycoldiacrylate (PEGDA) and methacrylic anhydride
Hydrogel; photoinitiator is added to the solution to promote the (meth)acrylic units’ polymerization to PulMA and PEGDA through a radical mechanism
A multifunctional 3D fibrous scaffold fabricated by a co-electrospinning system
As a drug delivery system for releasing cefuroxime axetil and also for bone regeneration
[114]
HA
Bacterial cellulose (BC)
Cross-linked BC/HA compositesBC/HA composites are prepared by solution impregnation, and a chemical cross-linking is established in the BC/HA system by using 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether
Wound healing
[115]
ε-polylysine (EPL) as a natural antimicrobial peptide
Electrospinning
Wound healing
[116]
Hyperbranched PEG
An injectable hydrogel is reported by combining hyperbranched PEG-based multihydrazide macro-crosslinker and aldehyde-functionalized HA (HA-CHO), with gelatin added to increase the cross-linking density
Tissue regeneration
[117]
γ-poly (glutamic) acid (γ-PGA) and glycidyl methacrylate as the photo-crosslinker
Digital light processing bio printed human chondrocyte-laden poly (γ-glutamic acid)/HA bio-ink
Cartilage tissue engineering
[118]
Bacterial cellulose
ECH as a cross-linking agent
The hydrogel is prepared by solving carboxymethyl-diethyl amino ethyl cellulose (CM-DEAEC) powder in deionized water and adding a cross-linking agent
Drug delivery
[119]
Graphene
A novel scaffold for culturing neural stem cells (NSCs), three-dimensional bacterial cellulose−graphene foam, which is prepared via in situ bacterial cellulose interfacial polymerization on the skeleton surface of porous graphene foam
Treatment of the neurodegenerative diseases
[120]
Citric acid as a cross-linking agent
Citric acid cross-linked carboxymethyl cellulose (C3CA) scaffolds are fabricated by a freeze–drying process
BC membranes are coated with PDA by a simple self-polymerization process, followed by treating with different contents of ε-PL
Wound dressing
[122]
PVA
Composite hydrogel
Substitute for corneal stroma
[123]
Bacteriophages
Carbon
Wild M13 bacteriophage particles are used for CNF electrode modification
Surface modification
[124]
Polycaprolactone and collagen
Electrospinning
Wound dressing with antibacterial hemostatic dual-function properties
[125]
Chitosan and alginate
Microencapsulation procedure
Therapeutic phage by oral delivery
[126]
Alginate and poly ε-caprolactone
A hybrid scaffold consisting of microsized core-sheath struts based on chemically conjugated M13 bacteriophage (phage)/alginate and PCL
Bone tissue regeneration
[127]
Tab.4
Fig.3
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig.8
Fig.9
Fig.10
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