Oblique angle deposition and its applications in plasmonics
Oblique angle deposition and its applications in plasmonics
Yizhuo He1, Junxue Fu2, Yiping Zhao1()
1. Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA; 2. Department of Physics, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China
Plasmonics based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) has found many exciting applications recently. Those applications usually require a good morphological and structural control of metallic nanostructures. Oblique angle deposition (OAD) has been demonstrated as a powerful technique for various plasmonic applications due to its advantages in controlling the size, shape, and composition of metallic nanostructures. In this review, we focus on the fabrication of metallic nanostructures by OAD and their applications in plasmonics. After a brief introduction to OAD technique, recent progress of applying OAD in fabricating noble metallic nanostructures for LSPR sensing, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, surface-enhanced infrared absorption, metal-enhanced fluorescence, and metamaterials, and their corresponding properties are reviewed. The future requirements for OAD plasmonics applications are also discussed.
. Oblique angle deposition and its applications in plasmonics[J]. Frontiers of Physics, 2014, 9(1): 47-59.
Yizhuo He, Junxue Fu, Yiping Zhao. Oblique angle deposition and its applications in plasmonics. Front. Phys. , 2014, 9(1): 47-59.
B. Rodriguez-Gonzalez, A. Burrows, M. Watanabe, C. J. Kiely, and L. M. L.Marzan, Multishell bimetallic AuAg nanoparticles: Synthesis, structure and optical properties, J. Mater. Chem. , 2005, 15(17): 1755 doi: 10.1039/b500556f
2
M. M. Miller and A. A. Lazarides, Sensitivity of metal nanoparticle surface plasmon resonance to the dielectric environment, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2005, 109(46): 21556 doi: 10.1021/jp054227y
3
C. Burda, X. B. Chen, R. Narayanan, and M. A. El-Sayed, Chemistry and properties of nanocrystals of different shapes, Chem. Rev. , 2005, 105(4): 1025 doi: 10.1021/cr030063a
4
H. X. Li and L. Rothberg, Colorimetric detection of DNA sequences based on electrostatic interactions with unmodified gold nanoparticles, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 2004, 101(39): 14036 doi: 10.1073/pnas.0406115101
5
N. L. Rosi and C. A. Mirkin, Nanostructures in biodiagnostics, Chem. Rev. , 2005, 105(4): 1547 doi: 10.1021/cr030067f
6
D. Cialla, A. M?rz, R. B?hme, F. Theil, K. Weber, M. Schmitt, and J. Popp, Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS): Progress and trends, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. , 2012, 403(1): 27 doi: 10.1007/s00216-011-5631-x
7
P. Negri and R. A. Dluhy, Ag nanorod based surfaceenhanced Ramanspectroscopy applied to bioanalytical sensing, J. Biophotonics , 2013, 6: 20 doi: 10.1002/jbio.201200133
8
B. Sharma, R. R. Frontiera, A. I. Henry, E. Ringe, and R. P. Van Duyne, SERS: Materials, applications, and the future, Mater. Today , 2012, 15(1-2): 16 doi: 10.1016/S1369-7021(12)70017-2
9
R. F. Aroca, D. J. Ross, and C. Domingo, Surface-enhanced infrared spectroscopy, Appl. Spectrosc. , 2004, 58(11): 324A doi: 10.1366/0003702042475420
10
M. Osawa, Dynamic processes in electrochemical reactions studied by surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS), Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. , 1997, 70(12): 2861 doi: 10.1246/bcsj.70.2861
11
N. Bondre, Y. X. Zhang, and C. D. Geddes, Metal-enhanced fluorescence based calcium detection: Greater than 100-fold increase in signal/noise using Fluo-3 or Fluo-4 and silver nanostructures, Sens. Actuators B , 2011, 152(1): 82 doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.09.041
12
R. Nooney, A. Clifford, X. Leguevel, O. Stranik, C. McDonagh, and B. D. Maccraith, Enhancing the analytical performance of immunoassays that employ metal-enhanced fluorescence, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. , 2010, 396(3): 1127 doi: 10.1007/s00216-009-3357-9
13
A. I. Dragan, E. S. Bishop, J. R. Casas-Finet, R. J. Strouse, M. A. Schenerman, and C. D. Geddes, Metalenhanced PicoGreen fluorescence: Application to fast and ultra-sensitive pg/ml DNA quantitation, J. Immunol. Methods , 2010, 362(1-2): 95 doi: 10.1016/j.jim.2010.09.011
14
Y. Liu and X. Zhang, Metamaterials: A new frontier of science and technology, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2011, 40(5): 2494 doi: 10.1039/c0cs00184h
X. Z. Zhou, F. Boey, F. W. Huo, L. Huang, and H. Zhang, Chemically functionalized surface patterning, Small , 2011, 7(16): 2273 doi: 10.1002/smll.201002381
17
Z. H. Xie, W. X. Yu, T. S. Wang, H. X. Zhang, Y. Q. Fu, H. Liu, F. Y. Li, Z. W. Lu, and Q. Sun, Plasmonic nanolithography: A review, Plasmonics , 2011, 6(3): 565 doi: 10.1007/s11468-011-9237-0
18
R. G. Freeman, K. C. Grabar, K. J. Allison, R. M. Bright, J. A. Davis, A. P. Guthrie, M. B. Hommer, M. A. Jackson, P. C. Smith, D. G. Walter, and M. J. Natan, Self-assembled metal colloid monolayers: An approach to SERS substrates, Science , 1995, 267(5204): 1629 doi: 10.1126/science.267.5204.1629
19
Y. J. Liu, H. Y. Chu, and Y. P. Zhao, Silver nanorod array substrates fabricated by oblique angle deposition: Morphological, optical, and SERS characterizations, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2010, 114(18): 8176 doi: 10.1021/jp1001644
20
Y. J. Jen, A. Lakhtakia, C. W. Yu, and C. T. Lin, Vapordeposited thin films with negative real refractive index in the visible regime, Opt. Express , 2009, 17(10): 7784 doi: 10.1364/OE.17.007784
21
K. Robbie, J. C. Sit, and M. J. Brett, Advanced techniques for glancing angle deposition, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B , 1998, 16(3): 1115 doi: 10.1116/1.590019
22
M. Kahl, E. Voges, S. Kostrewa, C. Viets, and W. Hill, Periodically structured metallic substrates for SERS, Sens. Actuators B , 1998, 51(1-3): 285 doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(98)00219-6
23
N. A. Abu Hatab, J. M. Oran, and M. J. Sepaniak, Surfaceenhanced Raman spectroscopy substrates created via electron beam lithography and nanotransfer printing, ACS Nano , 2008, 2(2): 377 doi: 10.1021/nn7003487
24
V. M. Shalaev,W. S. Cai, U. K. Chettiar, H. K. Yuan, A. K. Sarychev, V. P. Drachev, and A. V. Kildishev, Negative index of refraction in optical metamaterials, Opt. Lett. , 2005, 30(24): 3356 doi: 10.1364/OL.30.003356
25
S. M. Xiao, U. K. Chettiar, A. V. Kildishev, V. P. Drachev, and V. M. Shalaev, Yellow-light negative-index metamaterials, Opt. Lett. , 2009, 34(22): 3478 doi: 10.1364/OL.34.003478
26
J. C. Hulteen, D. A. Treichel, M. T. Smith, M. L. Duval, T. R. Jensen, and R. P. Van Duyne, Nanosphere lithography: Size-tunable silver nanoparticle and surface cluster arrays, J. Phys. Chem. B , 1999, 103(19): 3854 doi: 10.1021/jp9904771
27
C. L. Haynes and R. P. Van Duyne, Nanosphere lithography: A versatile nanofabrication tool for studies of size-dependent nanoparticle optics, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2001, 105(24): 5599 doi: 10.1021/jp010657m
28
A. D. Ormonde, E. C. M. Hicks, J. Castillo, and R. P. Van Duyne, Nanosphere lithography: Fabrication of large-area Ag nanoparticle arrays by convective self-assembly and their characterization by scanning UV-visible extinction spectroscopy, Langmuir , 2004, 20(16): 6927 doi: 10.1021/la0494674
29
L. Abelmann and C. Lodder, Oblique evaporation and surface diffusion, Thin Solid Films , 1997, 305(1-2): 1 doi: 10.1016/S0040-6090(97)00095-3
30
H. Vankranenburg and C. Lodder, Tailoring growth and local composition by oblique-incidence deposition: A review and new experimental data, Mater. Sci. Eng. R , 1994, 11(7): 295 doi: 10.1016/0927-796X(94)90021-3
31
K. Robbie and M. J. Brett, Sculptured thin films and glancing angle deposition: Growth mechanics and applications, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A , 1997, 15(3): 1460 doi: 10.1116/1.580562
32
Y. P. Zhao, D. X. Ye, G. C. Wang, and T. M. Lu, Novel nano-column and nano-flower arrays by glancing angle deposition, Nano Lett. , 2002, 2(4): 351 doi: 10.1021/nl0157041
33
Y. P. He and Y. P. Zhao, Advanced multi-component nanostructures designed by dynamic shadowing growth, Nanoscale , 2011, 3(6): 2361 doi: 10.1039/c1nr10103j
34
J. X. Fu, Y. P. He, and Y. P. Zhao, Fabrication of heteronanorod structures by dynamic shadowing growth, IEEE Sens. J. , 2008, 8(6): 989 doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2008.923939
35
Y. P. He, Z. Y. Zhang, C. Hoffmann, and Y. P. Zhao, Embedding Ag nanoparticles into MgF2 nanorod arrays, Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2008, 18(11): 1676 doi: 10.1002/adfm.200800065
36
Y. P. He, Y. P. Zhao, and J. S. Wu, The effect of Ti doping on the growth of Mg nanostructures by oblique angle codeposition, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2008, 92(6): 063107 doi: 10.1063/1.2844852
37
Y. P. He, C. Brown, C. A. Lundgren, and Y. P. Zhao, The growth of CuSi composite nanorod arrays by oblique angle co-deposition, and their structural, electrical and optical properties, Nanotechnology , 2012, 23(36): 365703 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/23/36/365703
38
G. K. Larsen, R. Fitzmorris, J. Z. Zhang, and Y. P. Zhao, Structural, optical, and photocatalytic properties of Cr:TiO2 nanorod array fabricated by oblique angle codeposition, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2011, 115(34): 16892 doi: 10.1021/jp205197f
39
G. K. Larsen, B. C. Fitzmorris, C. Longo, J. Z. Zhang, and Y. P. Zhao, Nanostructured homogenous CdSe-TiO2 composite visible light photoanodes fabricated by oblique angle codeposition, J. Mater. Chem. , 2012, 22(28): 14205 doi: 10.1039/c2jm32551a
40
Y. P. He, J. S. Wu, and Y. P. Zhao, Designing catalytic nanomotors by dynamic shadowing growth, Nano Lett. , 2007, 7(5): 1369 doi: 10.1021/nl070461j
41
Y. P. He, J. X. Fu, Y. Zhang, Y. P. Zhao, L. J. Zhang, A. L. Xia, and J. W. Cai, Multilayered Si/Ni nanosprings and their magnetic properties, Small , 2007, 3(1): 153 doi: 10.1002/smll.200600375
42
W. Smith and Y. P. Zhao, Enhanced photocatalytic activity by aligned WO3/TiO2 two-layer nanorod arrays, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2008, 112(49): 19635 doi: 10.1021/jp807703d
43
W. Smith and Y. P. Zhao, Superior photocatalytic performance by vertically aligned core-shell TiO2/WO3 nanorod arrays, Catal. Commun. , 2009, 10(7): 1117 doi: 10.1016/j.catcom.2009.01.010
44
R. Gupta, M. J. Dyer, and W. A. Weimer, Preparation and characterization of surface plasmon resonance tunable gold and silver films, J. Appl. Phys. , 2002, 92(9): 5264 doi: 10.1063/1.1511275
45
J. X. Fu, A. Collins, and Y. P. Zhao, Optical properties and biosensor application of ultrathin silver films prepared by oblique angle deposition, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2008, 112(43): 16784 doi: 10.1021/jp802909g
46
J. X. Fu and Y. P. Zhao, Au nanoparticle based localized surface plasmon resonance substrates fabricated by dynamic shadowing growth, Nanotechnology , 2010, 21(17): 175303 doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/21/17/175303
47
D. A. Gish, F. Nsiah, M. T. McDermott, and M. J. Brett, Localized surface plasmon resonance biosensor using silver nanostructures fabricated by glancing angle deposition, Anal. Chem. , 2007, 79(11): 4228 doi: 10.1021/ac0622274
48
D. R. H.Craig and F. Bohren, Absorption and scattering of light by small particles, New York: Wiley, 1983
49
U. Kreibig and M. Vollmer, Optical Properties of Metal Clusters, Berlin: Springer, 1995 doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-09109-8
50
J. D. Driskell, S. Shanmukh, Y. Liu, S. B. Chaney, X. J. Tang, Y. P. Zhao, and R. A. Dluhy, The use of aligned silver nanorod arrays prepared by oblique angle deposition as surface enhanced raman scattering substrates, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2008, 112(4): 895 doi: 10.1021/jp075288u
51
Q. Zhou, Y. He, J. Abell, Z. Zhang, and Y. Zhao, Surfaceenhanced Raman scattering from helical silver nanorod arrays, Chem. Commun. , 2011, 47(15): 4466 doi: 10.1039/c0cc05465h
52
Q. Zhou, Y. He, J. Abell, Z. Zhang, and Y. Zhao, Optical properties and surface enhanced raman scattering of L-shaped silver nanorod arrays, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2011, 115(29): 14131 doi: 10.1021/jp204389v
53
J. P. Singh, T. E. Lanier, H. Zhu, W. M. Dennis, R. A. Tripp, and Y. Zhao, Highly sensitive and transparent surface enhanced Raman scattering substrates made by active coldly condensed Ag nanorod arrays, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2012, 116(38): 20550 doi: 10.1021/jp305061s
54
Q. Zhou, X. Zhang, Y. Huang, Z. Li, Y. Zhao, and Z. Zhang, Enhanced surface-enhanced Raman scattering performance by folding silver nanorods, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2012, 100(11): 113101 doi: 10.1063/1.3694056
55
S. B. Chaney, S. Shanmukh, R. A. Dluhy, and Y. P. Zhao, Aligned silver nanorod arrays produce high sensitivity surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy substrates, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2005, 87(3): 031908 doi: 10.1063/1.1988980
56
C. L. Leverette, S. A. Jacobs, S. Shanmukh, S. B. Chaney, R. A. Dluhy, and Y. P. Zhao, Aligned silver nanorod arrays as substrates for surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy, Appl. Spectrosc. , 2006, 60(8): 906 doi: 10.1366/000370206778062084
57
J. L. Abell, J. M. Garren, and Y. P. Zhao, Dynamic rastering surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) measurements on silver nanorod substrates, Appl. Spectrosc. , 2011, 65(7): 734 doi: 10.1366/11-06264
58
C. M. Ruan, G. Eres, W. Wang, Z. Y. Zhang, and B. H. Gu, Controlled fabrication of nanopillar arrays as active substrates for surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, Langmuir , 2007, 23(10): 5757 doi: 10.1021/la0636356
59
M. A. De Jesús, K. S. Giesfeldt, J. M. Oran, N. A. Abu-Hatab, N. V. Lavrik, and M. J. Sepaniak, Nanofabrication of densely packed metal-polymer arrays for surface-enhanced Raman spectrometry, Appl. Spectrosc. , 2005, 59(12): 1501 doi: 10.1366/000370205775142557
60
Q. Zhou, Z. Li, Y. Yang, and Z. Zhang, Arrays of aligned, single crystalline silver nanorods for trace amount detection, J. Phys. D , 2008, 41(15): 152007 doi: 10.1088/0022-3727/41/15/152007
61
L. D. Qin, S. L. Zou, C. Xue, A. Atkinson, G. C. Schatz, and C. A. Mirkin, Designing, fabricating, and imaging Raman hot spots, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 2006, 103(36): 13300 doi: 10.1073/pnas.0605889103
62
S. L. Kleinman, R. R. Frontiera, A. I. Henry, J. A. Dieringer, and R. P. Van Duyne, Creating, characterizing, and controlling chemistry with SERS hot spots, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2013, 15(1): 21 doi: 10.1039/c2cp42598j
63
Y. Nishikawa, T. Nagasawa, K. Fujiwara, and M. Osawa, Silver island films for surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy: Effect of island morphology on the absorption enhancement, Vib. Spectrosc. , 1993, 6(1): 43 doi: 10.1016/0924-2031(93)87021-K
64
M. Osawa and M. Ikeda, Surface-enhanced infrared absorption of p-nitrobenzoic acid deposited on silver island films: contributions of electromagnetic and chemical mechanisms, J. Phys. Chem. , 1991, 95(24): 9914 doi: 10.1021/j100177a056
65
Y. Nishikawa, K. Fujiwara, K. Ataka, and M. Osawa, Surface-enhanced infrared external reflection spectroscopy at low reflective surfaces and its application to surface analysis of semiconductors, glasses, and polymers, Anal. Chem. , 1993, 65(5): 556 doi: 10.1021/ac00053a011
66
J. R. Lakowicz, C. D. Geddes, I. Gryczynski, J. Malicka, Z. Gryczynski, K. Aslan, J. Lukomska, E. Matveeva, J. A. Zhang, R. Badugu, and J. Huang, Advances in surfaceenhanced fluorescence, J. Fluoresc. , 2004, 14(4): 425 doi: 10.1023/B:JOFL.0000031824.48401.5c
67
I. Abdulhalim, A. Karabchevsky, C. Patzig, B. Rauschenbach, B. Fuhrmann, E. Eltzov, R. Marks, J. Xu, F. Zhang, and A. Lakhtakia, Surface-enhanced fluorescence from metal sculptured thin films with application to biosensing in water, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2009, 94(6): 063106 doi: 10.1063/1.3081031
68
H. R. Stuart and D. G. Hall, Enhanced dipole-dipole interaction between elementary radiators near a surface, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 1998, 80(25): 5663 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.5663
69
W. J. Padilla, D. N. Basov, and D. R. Smith, Negative refractive index metamaterials, Mater. Today , 2006, 9(7-8): 28 doi: 10.1016/S1369-7021(06)71573-5
70
J. B. Pendry, A. J. Holden, D. J. Robbins, and W. J. Stewart, Magnetism from conductors and enhanced nonlinear phenomena, IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. , 1999, 47(11): 2075 doi: 10.1109/22.798002
71
S. Zhang, W. J. Fan, N. C. Panoiu, K. J. Malloy, R. M. Osgood, and S. R. J.Brueck, Experimental demonstration of near-infrared negative-index metamaterials, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2005, 95(13): 137404 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.137404
72
J. Yao, Z. W. Liu, Y. M. Liu, Y. Wang, C. Sun, G. Bartal, A. M. Stacy, and X. Zhang, Optical negative refraction in bulk metamaterials of nanowires, Science , 2008, 321(5891): 930 doi: 10.1126/science.1157566
73
Y. J. Jen, C. H. Chen, and C. W. Yu, Deposited metamaterial thin film with negative refractive index and permeability in the visible regime, Opt. Lett. , 2011, 36(6): 1014 doi: 10.1364/OL.36.001014
74
Y. J. Jen, A. Lakhtakia, C. W. Yu, and Y. H. Wang, Negative real parts of the equivalent permittivity, permeability, and refractive index of sculptured-nanorod arrays of silver, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A , 2010, 28(5): 1078 doi: 10.1116/1.3456125
75
A. N. Lagarkov and A. K. Sarychev, Electromagnetic properties of composites containing elongated conducting inclusions, Phys. Rev. B , 1996, 53(10): 6318 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.53.6318
76
Y. J. Jen, A. Lakhtakia, C. W. Yu, J. J. Jhou, W. H. Wang, M. J. Lin, H. M. Wu, and H. S. Liao, Silver/silicon dioxide/ silver sandwich films in the blue-to-red spectral regime with negative-real refractive index, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2011, 99(18): 181117 doi: 10.1063/1.3658624
77
E. Plum, J. Zhou, J. Dong, V. A. Fedotov, T. Koschny, C. M. Soukoulis, and N. I. Zheludev, Metamaterial with negative index due to chirality, Phys. Rev. B , 2009, 79(3): 035407 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.79.035407
78
A. Papakostas, A. Potts, D. M. Bagnall, S. L. Prosvirnin, H. J. Coles, and N. I. Zheludev, Optical manifestations of planar chirality, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2003, 90(10): 107404 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.107404
79
M. Decker, M. W. Klein, M. Wegener, and S. Linden, Circular dichroism of planar chiral magnetic metamaterials, Opt. Lett. , 2007, 32(7): 856 doi: 10.1364/OL.32.000856
80
A. V. Rogacheva, V. A. Fedotov, A. S. Schwanecke, and N. I. Zheludev, Giant gyrotropy due to electromagnetic-field coupling in a bilayered chiral structure, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2006, 97(17): 177401 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.177401
81
M. Decker, M. Ruther, C. E. Kriegler, J. Zhou, C. M. Soukoulis, S. Linden, and M. Wegener, Strong optical activity from twisted-cross photonic metamaterials, Opt. Lett. , 2009, 34(16): 2501 doi: 10.1364/OL.34.002501
82
M. Kuwata-Gonokami, N. Saito, Y. Ino, M. Kauranen, K. Jefimovs, T. Vallius, J. Turunen, and Y. Svirko, Giant optical activity in quasi-two-dimensional planar nanostructures, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2005, 95(22): 227401 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.227401
83
M. Decker, R. Zhao, C. M. Soukoulis, S. Linden, and M. Wegener, Twisted split-ring-resonator photonic metamaterial with huge optical activity, Opt. Lett. , 2010, 35(10): 1593 doi: 10.1364/OL.35.001593
84
B. Gallas, K. Robbie, R. Abdedda?m, G. Guida, J. Yang, J. Rivory, and A. Priou, Silver square nanospirals mimic optical properties of U-shaped metamaterials, Opt. Express , 2010, 18(16): 16335 doi: 10.1364/OE.18.016335
85
B. Gallas, N. Guth, J. Rivory, H. Arwin, R. Magnusson, G. Guida, J. Yang, and K. Robbie, Nanostructured chiral silver thin films: A route to metamaterials at optical frequencies, Thin Solid Films , 2011, 519(9): 2650 doi: 10.1016/j.tsf.2010.12.078
