Prospective study on observations of <i>γ</i>-ray sources in the Galaxy using the HADAR experiment

doi:10.1007/s11467-022-1206-x

Front. Phys.

2022, Vol. 17

Issue (6) : 64602 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11467-022-1206-x

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Prospective study on observations of γ-ray sources in the Galaxy using the HADAR experiment

Xiangli Qian^1,², Huiying Sun¹, Tianlu Chen²(

), Danzengluobu², Youliang Feng², Qi Gao², Quanbu Gou³, Yiqing Guo^3,⁴, Hongbo Hu^3,⁴, Mingming Kang⁵, Haijin Li², Cheng Liu³, Maoyuan Liu², Wei Liu³, Bingqiang Qiao³, Xu Wang¹, Zhen Wang⁶, Guangguang Xin⁷, Yuhua Yao⁵, Qiang Yuan⁸, Yi Zhang⁸

¹. School of Intelligent Engineering, Shandong Management University, Jinan 250357, China
². The Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education, Lhasa 850000, China
³. Key Laboratory of Particle Astrophysics, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
⁴. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 A Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing 100049, China
⁵. College of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
⁶. Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
⁷. School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
⁸. Key Laboratory of Dark Matter and Space Astronomy, Purple Mountain Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China

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Abstract

The High Altitude Detection of Astronomical Radiation (HADAR) experiment is a refracting terrestrial telescope array based on the atmospheric Cherenkov imaging technique. It focuses the Cherenkov light emitted by extensive air showers through a large aperture water-lens system for observing very-high-energy γ-rays and cosmic rays. With the advantages of a large field-of-view (FOV) and low energy threshold, the HADAR experiment operates in a large-scale sky scanning mode to observe galactic sources. This study presents the prospects of using the HADAR experiment for the sky survey of TeV γ-ray sources from TeVCat and provids a one-year survey of statistical significance. Results from the simulation show that a total of 23 galactic point sources, including five supernova remnant sources and superbubbles, four pulsar wind nebula sources, and 14 unidentified sources, were detected in the HADAR FOV with a significance greater than 5 standard deviations (σ). The statistical significance for the Crab Nebula during one year of operation reached 346.0 σ and the one-year integral sensitivity of HADAR above 1 TeV was ~1.3%–2.4% of the flux from the Crab Nebula.

Keywords HADAR Galactic sources significance gamma rays

Corresponding Author(s): Tianlu Chen,Yiqing Guo

About author:

Tongcan Cui and Yizhe Hou contributed equally to this work.

Issue Date: 11 October 2022

Cite this article:

Xiangli Qian,Huiying Sun,Tianlu Chen, et al. Prospective study on observations of γ-ray sources in the Galaxy using the HADAR experiment[J]. Front. Phys. , 2022, 17(6): 64602.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/10.1007/s11467-022-1206-x
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/Y2022/V17/I6/64602

Fig.1 Schematic of HADAR: (a) Layout of the HADAR experiment; (b) Detailed design of a water-lens telescope [26].

Tab.1 Performance of the HADAR experiment. The spatial coverage, energy range, effective area, angular resolution, energy resolution, and point-source sensitivity are given. For a detailed description of the flux sensitivity, see Section 4.

Fig.2 Performance of HADAR angular resolution. The incident zenith angles were 10°, 20° and 30° [26].

Fig.3 Performance of HADAR effective area: (a) Effective areas for incident

γ

-ray events at different zenith angles [26] and comparison with other IACT and EAS experiments; (b) Acceptance for HADAR and other experiments.

Source	R.A. (°)	Dec. (°)	$J 0$ (TeV⁻¹·cm⁻²·s⁻¹)	$E 0$ (TeV)	$Γ$	Extension (°)	Livetime (hrs)	S( $σ$ )	Ref.

W 49B	287.78	9.16	$3.15 × 10 − 13$	1	3.14	–	195.0	8.6	[7]
HESS J1912+101	288.20	10.15	$3.66 × 10 − 14$	7	2.64	0.7	203.3	20.6	[14]
W 51	290.73	14.19	$2.61 × 10 − 14$	7	2.51	0.9	230.4	8.2	[14]
ARGO J2031+4157	307.80	42.50	$3.50 × 10 − 9$	0.1	2.16	2.0	277.7	23.6	[32]
Cassiopeia A	350.81	58.81	$1.10 × 10 − 11$	0.433	2.40	–	98.7	5.7	[33]

Tab.2 Expected significance of SNRs, superbubbles, and binaries with HADAR between 30 GeV and 10 TeV using a 1 yr observation time. Columns from left to right are as follows: source name, R.A., Dec., normalization flux,

E 0

, spectral index, extended degree (“–” represents an extension of 0), effective livetime, expected significance by HADAR, and the references of the measurements.

Source	R.A. (°)	Dec. (°)	$J 0$ (TeV⁻¹·cm⁻²·s⁻¹)	$E 0$ (TeV)	$Γ$	Extension (°)	Livetime (hrs)	S( $σ$ )	Ref.

Crab	83.63	22.01	$1.85 × 10 − 13$	7	2.58	−	241.8	346.0	[14]
Geminga	98.12	17.37	$4.87 × 10 − 14$	7	2.23	2.0	230.2	13.7	[14]
TeV J1930+188	292.63	18.87	$1.96 × 10 − 14$	7	2.18	−	255.0	10.5	[34]
2HWC J1953+294	298.26	29.48	$8.30 × 10 − 15$	7	2.78	−	288.6	31.4	[14]

Tab.3 Expected significance of PWNs with HADAR between 30 GeV and 10 TeV using a 1 yr observation time. Columns from left to right are as follows: source name, R.A., Dec., normalization flux,

E 0

, spectral index, extended degree (“−” represents an extension of 0), effective livetime, expected significance by HADAR, and the references of the measurements.

Source	R.A. (°)	Dec. (°)	$J 0$ (TeV⁻¹·cm⁻²·s⁻¹)	$E 0$ (TeV)	$Γ$	Extension (°)	Livetime (hrs)	S( $σ$ )	Ref.

MAGIC J0223+403	35.80	43.01	$1.70 × 10 − 11$	0.3	3.10	–	252.5	13.5	[35]
2HWC J1829+070	277.34	7.03	$8.10 × 10 − 15$	7	2.69	–	173.8	14.4	[14]
2HWC J1852+ $013 ∗$	283.01	1.38	$1.82 × 10 − 14$	7	2.90	–	73.6	36.9	[14]
MAGIC J1857.6+0297	284.40	2.97	$6.10 × 10 − 12$	1	2.39	0.1	112.2	25.5	[36]
2HWC J1902+ $048 ∗$	285.51	4.86	$8.30 × 10 − 15$	7	3.22	–	145.7	82.1	[14]
2HWC J1907+ $084 ∗$	286.79	8.50	$7.30 × 10 − 15$	7	3.25	–	189.4	102.5	[14]
MGRO J1908+06	286.98	6.27	$8.51 × 10 − 14$	7	2.33	0.8	164.6	12.4	[14]
2HWC J1914+ $117 ∗$	288.68	11.72	$8.50 × 10 − 15$	7	2.83	–	215.3	29.1	[14]
2HWC J1921+131	290.30	13.13	$7.90 × 10 − 15$	7	2.75	–	223.8	21.5	[14]
2HWC J1928+177	292.15	17.78	$1.07 × 10 − 14$	7	2.60	–	249.9	19.8	[37]
2HWC J1938+238	294.74	23.81	$7.40 × 10 − 15$	7	2.96	–	274.7	51.9	[14]
2HWC J1955+285	298.83	28.59	$5.70 × 10 − 15$	7	2.40	–	286.7	7.3	[14]
2HWC J2006+341	301.55	34.18	$9.60 × 10 − 15$	7	2.64	–	292.0	42.7	[14]
VER J2019+407	305.02	40.76	$1.50 × 10 − 12$	1	2.37	0.23	284.3	14.9	[38]

Tab.4 Expected significance of unidentified sources with HADAR between 30 GeV and 10 TeV using a 1 yr observation time. Columns from left to right are as follows: source name, R.A., Dec., normalization flux,

E 0

, spectral index, extended degree (“–” represents an extension of 0), effective livetime, expected significance by HADAR, and the references of the measurements.

Fig.4 Sensitivity in equatorial coordinates for a one-year sky survey using HADAR in units of the flux from the Crab Nebula (~2.26 × 10⁻¹¹ cm⁻²·s⁻¹, E

>

1 TeV) [39] and assuming a power-law spectrum with photon index

Γ = 2.51

. The sensitivity used here is defined as the minimum flux of a point source that would be detectable at the 5 σ significance level in the HADAR FOV.

Fig.5 Expected significance of all TeV sources in the equatorial coordinates (J2000 epoch) in the HADAR FOV. The visualization range is limited between −5 and 15.

Tab.5 Expected observation numbers of galactic

γ

-ray sources as well as unknown and unassociated sources in the Fermi-LAT 4FGL catalog with HADAR below 100 GeV. The third column lists the number of objects in the HADAR survey regions, while the fourth column provides the number of sources expected to be observed by HADAR.

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