Twistronics and moiré excitonic physics in van der Waals heterostructures

doi:10.1007/s11467-023-1355-6

Front. Phys.

2024, Vol. 19

Issue (4) : 42501 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11467-023-1355-6

Twistronics and moiré excitonic physics in van der Waals heterostructures

Siwei Li¹, Ke Wei²(

), Qirui Liu¹, Yuxiang Tang², Tian Jiang²(

)

¹. College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
². Institute for Quantum Science and Technology, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

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Abstract

Heterostructures composed of two-dimensional van der Waals (vdW) materials allow highly controllable stacking, where interlayer twist angles introduce a continuous degree of freedom to alter the electronic band structures and excitonic physics. Motivated by the discovery of Mott insulating states and superconductivity in magic-angle bilayer graphene, the emerging research fields of “twistronics” and moiré physics have aroused great academic interests in the engineering of optoelectronic properties and the exploration of new quantum phenomena, in which moiré superlattice provides a pathway for the realization of artificial excitonic crystals. Here we systematically summarize the current achievements in twistronics and moiré excitonic physics, with emphasis on the roles of lattice rotational mismatches and atomic registries. Firstly, we review the effects of the interlayer twist on electronic and photonic physics, particularly on exciton properties such as dipole moment and spin-valley polarization, through interlayer interactions and electronic band structures. We also discuss the exciton dynamics in vdW heterostructures with different twist angles, like formation, transport and relaxation processes, whose mechanisms are complicated and still need further investigations. Subsequently, we review the theoretical analysis and experimental observations of moiré superlattice and moiré modulated excitons. Various exotic moiré effects are also shown, including periodic potential, moiré miniband, and varying wave function symmetry, which result in exciton localization, emergent exciton peaks and spatially alternating optical selection rule. We further introduce the expanded properties of moiré systems with external modulation factors such as electric field, doping and strain, showing that moiré lattice is a promising platform with high tunability for optoelectronic applications and in-depth study on frontier physics. Lastly, we focus on the rapidly developing field of correlated electron physics based on the moiré system, which is potentially related to the emerging quantum phenomena.

Keywords moiré superlattice twistronics van der Waals heterostructure moiré exciton correlated electronic state

Corresponding Author(s): Ke Wei,Tian Jiang

Issue Date: 29 February 2024

Cite this article:

Siwei Li,Ke Wei,Qirui Liu, et al. Twistronics and moiré excitonic physics in van der Waals heterostructures[J]. Front. Phys. , 2024, 19(4): 42501.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/10.1007/s11467-023-1355-6
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/Y2024/V19/I4/42501

Fig.1 Schematic diagrams of five typical aligned stacking patterns of bilayer MoS₂. (a) Side view and (b) Top view of stacking orders with two different kinds of labels, where A?A, A?A′, A′?B, A?B′ and A?B correspond to 3R-like, 2H, 2H-like (Mo), 2H-like (S) and 3R, respectively. One pair of S atoms is denoted by one yellow circle as a concise representation. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [69]. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [77].

Fig.2 Experimental observations of stacking-angle modulated interlayer interactions. (a) The upper panel shows PL spectroscopy for the bottom (as grown, gray line) and top (transferred, green line) monolayers, as well as twisted bilayers (t-BLs) MoS₂ at various twist angles θ. The lower panel is the measured (black) and simulated (magenta) peak energies versus θ for the indirect (circles), A (squares), and B (triangles) transitions. (b) Schematic of the interlayer separation of t-BL MoS₂ depending on the stacking patterns (upper panel) and twisting angle θ (lower panel) relative to the 60° separation. (c) PL spectra with the Lorentzian fitting at 77 K. (d) The bandgap alignment of coupled as-grown MoS₂/WS₂ heterostructure. The solid black, green, and orange double-arrow lines represent the energy gap, optical gap, and exciton binding energy, respectively. (e) PL spectra of the randomly twisted WS₂ bilayer compared with monolayer. (f) Twist angle dependence of the trion to exciton PL intensity ratio (left panel) and trion binding energy (right panel). (g) The intensity of the interlayer exciton peak versus the twist angle (left panel) and the plane-averaged partial charge density of each band edge state (VBM and CBM at K) versus the interlayer distance for θ = 60° and 27.8° (right panel) of MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterostructures. (h?i) Scheme of valley and spin polarizations excited by circularly polarized light in bilayers with suppressed (h) interlayer hopping and (i) strong interlayer coupling. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [87]. (c, d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [76]. (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [74]. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [88]. (g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [70]. (h, i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [77].

Fig.3 Electronic structure and optical properties in twist heterostructures. (a) Quasiparticle band structure of AA′ and AB stacked bilayer TMDs. The green lines indicate the monolayer band structure. (b) Second-derivative plot of the ARPES band map along

M ˉ

Γ ˉ

K ˉ

of the MoS₂ in Gr/MoS₂ heterostructures under different twist angles. (c) Brillouin zone of Gr and surface Brillouin zone of MoS₂ under twist angle θ. (d) Scheme of band alignment (left panel) and two-dimensional band structure (right panel) of twisted MoS₂/WSe₂ heterostructure.

| + Γ ?

is the hybrid state of both layers and moves up as hybridization increases. (e) Measured PL peak energies and calculated transition energies of different interlayer excitons MoS₂/WSe₂ heterostructure with different twist angles. (f) Geometries (upper panel) and corresponding DFT-calculated band structures (lower panel) of MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterostructures under twist angle θ = 60° and 27.8°. The contributions of the MoSe₂ (black) and WSe₂ (red) layer are denoted in band structures. (g) Electric-field-dependent PL spectra of K?Г interlayer excitons (upper panel) and reflectance spectra of K?K intralayer excitons (lower panel) in different spots of t-BL MoSe₂ at 4 K. (h) Shifted Brillouin zone corners of two constituent layers under a small twist in TMD heterostructure. The green arrows denote the displacement vector between

τ K

and

τ ′ K ′

corner. (i) An interlayer exciton formed with kinematic momentum Q. The interlayer Coulomb interaction between the electron and the hole conserving their momentum sum is marked by the gray wavy line. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [68]. (b, c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [45]. (d, e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [72]. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [70]. (g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [82]. (h, i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [46].

Fig.4 Exciton dynamics modulated by twist angle. (a) Three types of band alignment in semiconductor heterostructures. The VB and CB represent valence band and conduction band positions, respectively. (b) Scheme of the charge transfer in type-II band alignment of TMD heterostructures. (c) Schematic illustration of interlayer hole transfer in of MoS₂/WS₂ heterostructures after optically pumping MoS₂ A-exciton, while the electron remains in the MoS₂ layer. (d) The transient absorption spectra obtained by selectively probing the WS₂ A-exciton resonance in MoS₂ monolayer or MoS₂/WS₂ heterostructures with varying twist angles. (e) Sketch of the band alignment and ultrafast charge transfer dynamics for twisted MoS₂/WSe₂ under 1.70 eV pump (left panel) and 1.85 eV pump (right panel). (f) The structure of the monolayer Brillouin zone, where the red and blue closed curves indicate the energy contours of Q_c valleys. The dashed circle denotes a ring region with strong interlayer coupling of the conduction band. (g) Schematic illustrations of interlayer charge transfer process mediated by strong layer mixed Г and Q valleys in the energy (upper two panels) and momentum (lower two panels) spaces. The right two panels depict the electron transfer and those on the left correspond to the hole transfer. (h) Differential reflection signal of WS₂/WSe₂ heterostructures under 30° (upper panel) and 60° (lower panel) twist, respectively. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [54]. (c, d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [79]. (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85]. (f, g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [52]. (h) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [84].

Fig.5 Spin-valley polarization physics in twisted vdW TMD heterostructure. (a) Light cones at finite velocities and injection of pure valley current of excitons by linearly polarized light. Currents of different valleys are denoted by green and pink arrows. (b) Schematic of the interlayer excitons in the +K valley. Intralayer excitons are excited by

σ +

polarized optical pump (black wavy lines) and form interlayer excitons in the +K valley through fast interlayer charge transfer (blue dotted arrows). (c) Circular polarization-resolved PL spectra of the interlayer exciton performing a strong valley polarization. (d) Polarization-resolved PL spectra (left panel) and degree of circular polarization (DOCP) (right panel) of intralayer (X₀) and interlayer (X_I) excitons in WSe₂ bilayers with varying twist angles. (e) PL (upper panel) and DOCP (lower panel) of twisted MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterostructure under linearly polarized 532-nm laser pump and circular-polarized detection at 1.8 K. The splitting optical resonances are attributed to the moiré excitons. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [46]. (b, c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [51]. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [73]. (e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [83].

Fig.6 MSLs in twisted TMD heterostructures. High symmetry points in a moiré supercell of near R-stacking (a) and near H-stacking (b) MSLs. (c) CAFM image of near-0° (left panel) and near-60° (right panel) heterostructures presenting alternating triangular and hexagonal domains with constant conductivity and narrow boundaries. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [93]. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [140].

Fig.7 Theoretical predictions of excitons in moiré superlattices. (a) The monolayer Brillouin zones (solid blue and red hexagons) and the mini Brillouin zone of moiré superlattice (dash black hexagon). (b) The corresponding interlayer hopping terms (green double arrows) between different mini bands near the band edges of the 1D moiré mini BZ. (c) Exciton wave packets at the three high symmetry locals (left column) and the corresponding transformations of electron Bloch wave function with hexagon center of the hole layer as a rotation center. (d) Oscillator strength of the interlayer exciton (left panel) and optical selection rule (right panel) for the spin-up interlayer exciton at the K valley. The insert denotes the major axis of polarization with the length proportional to ellipticity. (e) Contrasted potential landscapes for the intralayer and interlayer excitons, with the optical selection rules for the spin-up species at the energy minima. (f) Upper panel: A perspective view of an STM image zoomed in on one moiré supercell. Lower panel: A height profile under varying stacking order along the diagonal line. (g) The site-dependent electronic structures in MoS₂/WSe₂ heterobilayers. Upper panel: The experimental values and calculated DFT results of energy differences between K_W and Г_W of valence band at four different local atomic registries. Lower panel: The experimental and calculated DFT results of local bandgap formed between the CBM of MoS₂ and the VBM of WSe₂. (h) Optical spectrum of K-valley interlayer excitons under different twist angles of WS₂/MoS₂ heterobilayer with AA stacking. The red and blue curves show the optical absorption in response to

σ +

- and

σ ?

-polarized light at frequency ω, respectively. (i) The real-space probability function of the interlayer excitons responsible for the first three absorption peaks at θ = 1°. (a, b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [52]. (c?e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49]. (f, g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56]. (h, i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56].

Fig.8 Experimental observations of moiré excitons. (a) STM image with different moiré locations of MoS₂/WSe₂ heterostructure (upper panel) and constant-height conductance map for voltage in the valence band-edge region (lower panel), where confined states occurred at B and C. (b) PL and reflectivity spectra of MoSe₂ measured in monolayer and MoSe₂/MoS₂ heterostructure. (c) Spatial map showing the presence of MoSe₂ transition splitting overlaid with the areas of most intense PL of MoS₂ and MoSe₂. (d) The energy of the observed MoSe₂ transitions (blue and red dots) extracted along the horizontal dashed line of (c). Green diamonds denote the MoS₂ PL intensity. (e) Comparison between the interlayer exciton PLE spectrum (black dots) and the reflection spectrum (blue curve) of WSe₂/WS₂ moiré superlattice. (f) Twist-angle dependent PL calculated for i) anti-parallel and ii) parallel stacking twisted WSe₂ on SiO₂ at 4 K. (g) Reflection contrast spectra in the range of the WSe₂ A exciton on the electron-doping side. (h) Optical characteristics of moiré intralayer excitons in WSe₂/WSe₂ twisted homobilayer. Left panel: Comparing the PL spectra of WSe₂ monolayer and homobilayer at 8 K. Right panel: PL spectra of homobilayers with twist angles of 1.36° and 3°. (i) Left panel: Moiré mini Brillouin zone (purple) defined by the moiré Bragg vectors (purple arrows). Right panel: Electronic band structures and Brillouin zone alignment for twisted MoSe₂/WS₂ heterobilayers. Spin-down (spin-up) bands are colored red or green (grey). (j) Band alignments with almost resonant conduction band states of the twisted bilayer of TMD MoX₂ and WX′₂ (X, X′ = S, Se, Te) for near parallel (θ ≈ 0°, left panel) and near antiparallel (θ ≈ 60°, right panel) cases. (k) Exciton hybridization in twisted bilayers TMDs. Upper panel: Schematic electronic band structure at the K and Λ valley of the two twisted layers (red and blue, respectively) as well as possible intra- (X) and interlayer excitons (IX). Lower panel: Schematic exciton center-of-mass dispersion without hybridization as well as hybridized K?Λ state hX (green). (l) Twist-angle dependent low-energy absorption spectra near the energy of A exciton in MoSe₂/WS₂ with resonant conduction band edges. The hXs form at closely alignment cases, leading to the avoided crossings marked by green arrows. The white arrows denote the absorption lines enabled by moiré Umklapp processes. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [57]. (b?d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [121]. (e, g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [151]. (f, k) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [149]. (h) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [63]. (i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [146]. (j, l) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [150].

Fig.9 Exciton properties and dynamics modulated by moiré superlattice. (a) Localized moiré excitons with different twist angles and energies in the MoS₂/WS₂ heterostructure. The charge densities of the electron and the hole are colored in red and blue, respectively. (b) Gate-dependent PL spectra (left panel) and DOLP (right panel) of the two exciton species in WSe₂ bilayers with reconstructed moiré superlattice. Inset in the left panel: SEM image of the measured spot. (c) Upper panel: Band structure schematic and wavefunction distribution at important points in k-space. Lower panel: Side views of AB and BA domains, where type I and II locations are denoted by maroon and orange boxes, respectively. (d) Schematic of alternating properties in the 2D triangular exciton array, showing only excitons in the top layer for brevity. (e) Anomalous diffusion of interlayer excitons in WS₂/WSe₂ heterobilayers with exciton density at time zero N₀ = 6.0 × 10¹² cm^?2 at 295 K, compared with the normal exciton diffusion in 1L-WSe₂ and 1L-WS₂ with linear temporal dependence. (f) Twist-angle- and temperature-dependent K?K and K?Q interlayer exciton dynamics. Left panel: Schematic of the probing electron (reflecting K?K interlayer exciton population) and hole (reflecting the sum of the K?K and K?Q exciton populations) dynamics. Right panel: The fitted decay time of the K?K exciton as a function of temperature under exciton density at 4.1 × 10¹² cm^?2. (g) Spatially resolved PL images of the interlayer excitons for CVD-grown sample A-1, mechanical exfoliation and transfer (MET) sample B-1, and MET sample C with different twist angles θ, respectively. (h) Schematics of the Brillouin zone of twisted bilayers. The red (blue) hexagons denote the Brillouin zone of MoSe₂ (WS₂) monolayers. In the left panel with θ = 6°, the green arrows indicate vectors of momentum shift between the Brillouin zone corners of the two monolayers. In the middle (right) panel, a commensurate moiré reciprocal lattice is formed with the corresponding moiré Brillouin zone denoted by the black hexagons. The yellow arrow represents the moiré reciprocal lattice base vector that connects K_M and

K W ′

(K_W). (i) Twist-angle dependence of normalized PL spectra at 290 K (left panel) and reflectance contrast spectra at 10 K (right panel) of MoSe₂/WS₂ heterobilayers near the A-exciton energy in an isolated MoSe₂ monolayer (black). (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [50]. (b?d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [141]. (e, f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [134]. (g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [158]. (h) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [135]. (i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [146].

Fig.10 Spin-valley configurations of moiré excitons. (a) Circular-polarization-resolved PL spectrum of MoSe₂ measured in (left panel) and out of (right panel) the MoSe₂/MoS₂ heterostructure region at T = 5 K. The green bars represent the DOP of the peaks. (b) Interlayer excitons valley polarization in WSe₂/WSe₂ twisted homobilayer at T = 8 K. (c) The illustration of the interlayer excitons transitions for IX₁ and IX₂ showing opposite circular polarizations. (d) Valley polarization of trapped interlayer excitons of MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterobilayers with twist angles of 57° (co-circularly polarized), 20° (cross-circularly polarized) and 2° (co-circularly polarized) excited by

σ +

-polarized light at T = 1.6 K. The

σ +

and

σ ?

components of the photoluminescence are shown in red and blue, respectively. (e) Dependence of Zeeman splitting of trapped interlayer excitons on the twist angle in MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterobilayer. Top: Helicity-resolved PL spectra at 3 T under linearly polarized excitation. Bottom: Plot of total PL intensity as a function of magnetic field. (f) The spin-conserved and spin-flip momentum matrix elements for R-type and H-type MoSe₂/WSe₂ heterobilayers. The red, blue and black colors correspond to the

σ +

σ ?

and out-of-plane (z) polarized components, respectively. (g) Valley-polarized singlet and triplet interlayer exciton emissions for hBN encapsulated WSe₂/MoSe₂ twisted bilayer. (h) Circular-polarization-resolved PL spectra of representative IX^R excitons of TL heterostructures (ML-WSe₂ and BL 2H-MoSe₂) trapped in the site

R h h

under linearly polarized excitation at 2.33 eV and different applied magnetic fields. (i) Schematics of the selection rules for optical transitions involving the K-point valence band for both spin-singlet and spin-triplet IXs trapped in moiré potential sites with different atomic registries. (j) Sketch of the TL heterostructures consisting of a 2H BL-MoSe₂ crystal with ML- and BL-thick terraces stacked on top of an ML-WSe₂. Electrons (red shadows) at the ±K valleys localized either in the bottom or top layer MoSe₂, are strongly bound to holes (blue shadows) in the WSe₂, creating two species of IX (green circles): IX^H and IX^R, respectively. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [121]. (b, c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [63]. (d, e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [62]. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [66]. (g) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [164]. (h) (i, j) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [165].

Fig.11 Moiré system tunning by external methods. (a) The charge density distribution for the lowest-energy moiré exciton in the twisted MoS₂/WS₂ heterostructure under different electric fields. Red and blue colors represent the charge density of the electron and the hole, respectively. (b) Upper panel: Schematic of the dual-gate device structure for WSe₂/WS₂ bilayer. Lower panel: Type II band alignment for 60°-aligned and 0°-aligned samples. Intralayer (interlayer) dipole-allowed optical transitions are represented by solid (dashed) double-headed arrows. (c) Electric-field dependence of layer-hybridized excitons in 60°-aligned WSe₂/WS₂ moiré superlattice at fixed doping densities. Top row: Energy derivative of the reflectance contrast spectrum. Bottom row: The extracted exciton resonance energies, where solid red lines and dashed black lines represent experimental data and the best fit three-level model, respectively. The blue dotted lines show the dispersion of uncoupled exciton states. (d) Moiré trions in a twisted bilayer MoS₂. The left panel is the color plot of PL spectra under varying gate voltage. Right panel: Peak intensities of the two trion peaks as a function of gate voltage. (e) Phase diagram of moiré trion formation as a function of exciton density and electron density under positive gating, where

N m

denotes moiré trap density.

T A B

represent different types of trions, where the subscripts A and B denote the phase of the exciton and the electron involved in the trion formation, respectively. (f) PL spectra as a function of doping. Insets depict the charge configuration of both neutral and charged excitons. (g) Left two panels: Schematic of quasi-1D moiré superlattices formed with a uniaxial strain S of 8% under different twist angle ?θ, where the arrows highlight the primary 1D moiré structures and the dashed rectangles of the secondary ones. Right two panels: PFM images at different locations of the twisted hBN/WSe₂/MoSe₂. Insets: FFTs of the PFM images. (h) Schematic of dynamic tunning of moiré excitons in WSe₂/WS₂ heterostructure by optical fiber tip (upper panel) and DAC (lower panel). (i) Direct correlation between 1D moiré patterns and linearly polarized PL emissions for WSe₂/MoSe₂ heterobilayers under different twist angles. Top row: Angular dependence of the PL emission. Bottom row: Corresponding angular distribution in the 2D FFTs of the PFM images. The light-golden sectors represent the angular distributions of the primary oval structures in the strained moiré landscapes, while the green sectors denote the angular distributions of the secondary pseudo-1D stripes formed by the primary structures. The blue double arrows represent the corresponding PL polarization directions. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [50]. (b, c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [148]. (d, e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [154]. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [166]. (g, i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [167]. (h) Reproduced with permissions from Refs. [144, 168].

Fig.12 Correlated electronic states in moiré systems. (a) Illustration of a near-zero twisted WSe₂/WS₂ heterostructure device used for an ODRC measurement. A small a.c. bias (

Δ V ~

) leads to charge redistribution between the region covered by top gate and the uncovered region, which is detected via the change in the optical reflectivity of the WSe₂ exciton in the uncovered region. (b) The doping-dependent Mott insulating states and Wigner crystal of devices in (a) probed by optical contrast reflectance ΔOC. (c) Illustrations of generalized Wigner crystal and Mott insulator states in a WSe₂/WS₂ moiré superlattice. (d) Two-terminal resistance of 60° aligned WSe₂/WS₂ bilayers as a function of filling factor at different temperatures. The inset shows the temperature-dependent resistance at two different filling factors. (e) Dependence of the magnetic susceptibility g–g₀ (left axis, black filled symbols) on the filling factor at 1.65 K and Weiss constant θ (right axis, red empty symbols) in 60° aligned WSe₂/WS₂ bilayers, with

n 0 / n 0 2 2

as the density of moiré supercell. Here g–g₀ is the difference of Landé g-factor between excitons in the moiré superlattice and bare excitons. (f) Nearly two dozen insulating states and their energy ordering in a WSe₂/WS₂ moiré heterostructure at 1.6 K probed by the 2s exciton in the sensor. The top axis shows the proposed filling factor for the insulating states. (g) Gate dependence of differential reflectance spectrum of MoSe₂/hBN/MoSe₂ with back gate fixed at 4 V. (h) Observation of optically induced ferromagnetism at near

v = ? 1 / 13 3

filling of WS₂/WSe₂ measured by power-dependent RMCD at 1.6 K. (i) Electric field dependence of differential reflectance spectrum of MoSe₂/hBN/MoSe₂ at two fixed filling factors, with charge configuration of the top and bottom layer indicated by

(v top, v bot)

in green. (j) Schematic of moiré exciton I and III under hole and electron doping. (k) Doping-dependent reflection contrast spectrum of a WSe₂/WS₂ moiré superlattice shows distinct behaviour for WSe₂ moiré excitons I, II and III. (l) The schematic of hole distributions for the double-layer system of (left panel) the Mott insulator at point A of (m), (middle panel) interlayer exciton insulator at point B of (m), and (right panel) the particle-hole transformation of the doped Mott insulator state at point B of (m) to form the interlayer exciton insulator. (m) The phase diagram of the correlated interlayer exciton insulator in the double-layer system detected by the WSe₂ monolayer 2s exciton signal. (n) MIM spectra as a function of gate voltage for the moiré superlattice of 1L/1L, 2L/1L and 3L/1L WSe₂/WS₂ at 10 K, respectively. (a?c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [181]. (d, e) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [129]. (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [130]. (g, i) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [131]. (h) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [187]. (j, k) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [186]. (l, m) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [188]. (n) Reproduced with permission from Ref. [185].

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