1. National Academy of Agriculture Green Development, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China 2. College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China 3. Environmental Economics and Natural Resources Group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, the Netherlands
● A target-threshold indicator evaluation system is proposed to measure China’s agriculture transformation.
● Evaluation based on a development score showed China is currently at a medium level in the Agriculture Green Development initiative.
● There was a trend for increasing development scores for 2010–2020 compared to 1997–2010.
● Trade-offs between eco-environmental factors and socioeconomic/food production factors were found to be the major barriers to the transformation.
● More effort is needed to address the insufficient and uneven development to provide coordinated improvement.
China has initiated a green transformation plan in 2015, which was soon applied to agriculture, known as the agriculture green development (AGD) initiative, with the goals of achieving food security, high resource use efficiency, and an ecofriendly environment. To assess the agricultural transformation from 1997 to 2020, this paper proposes a national-scale indicator system consisting three dimensions (socioeconomic, food production and eco-environmental) and ten sub-dimensions to quantify the AGD score. This study showed that AGD score in China was at a moderate level during 1997–2010, scoring 40 out of 100. During this stage, decreased scores in the sub-dimensions of resource consumption, environmental quality, and environmental cost have offset the improvement in the socioeconomic dimension, resulting in fluctuated scores around 40. In the second stage (2011–2020), China’s AGD score improved but still at moderate level, scoring an average of 46.3, with each dimension increasing by 5.3%–25.0%. These results indicate that China has made progress in the agricultural transformation, transitioning from conceptualization to actions through the implementation of various policies and projects. However, the study emphasizes the need for more effort to address the insufficient and unbalanced development, along with the growing eco-environmental challenges, especially the trade-offs among dimensions.
Pesticide input usage (pure volume) / total planting farmland
kg·ha–1
>10
5–10
2.5–5
<2.5
1.1.3
Exogenous N input in animal feed
(N demand of animal husbandry-N supply of planting industry) / number of standard animals
kg·LU–1 N*
>120
60–120
0–60
≤0
1.1.4
Agricultural water footprint
(Main food consumption × agricultural water footprint per person) / population
t·person–1·yr–1
>760
620–760
480–620
<480
Agricultural productivity
1.2.1
Cropland protein productivity
Total protein of various crops / cultivated land area
kg·ha–1
<313
313–372
372–431
>431
1.2.2
Cropland calorie productivity
(Variety of crop products calories + animal product calories) / cultivated land area
10,000 kcal·ha–1
<1960
1960–2180
2180–2400
>2400
1.2.3
Cropland economic productivity
Gross agricultural output value / cultivated land area
10,000 yuan·ha–1
<6.73
6.73–8.4
8.4–10.5
>10.5
1.2.4
Irrigation efficiency
Statistical data
?
<0.5
0.5–0.55
0.55–0.6
>0.6
Production efficiency
1.3.1
Energy efficiency
∑(Agricultural production primary energy consumption × per unit of energy) / gross agricultural production value
MJ·(million yuan) –1
>7291
6197–7291
5650–6197
<5650
1.3.2
Cropland N use efficiency
(N uptake at the harvest site + N uptake in straw) / total nitrogen input in farmland × 100
%
0-35
35–50
50–65
>65
1.3.3
Animal N use efficiency
(N absorption of main products of livestock and poultry + N absorption of animal byproducts) /total input of nitrogen of livestock and poultry × 100
%
<10
10–20
20–30
>30
1.3.4
Cropland P use efficiency
(P uptake at harvest site + P uptake from straw) / total P input to farmland × 100
%
0–20
20–30
30–40
>40
Socioeconomic
Production conditions
2.1.1
Agricultural investment
Investment in agriculture and forestry water affairs / rural population
yuan·person–1
<3259
3259–4786
4786–6140
>6150
2.1.2
Mechanization
Total power of agricultural machinery / cultivated land area
kW·ha–1
<6.2
6.2–8.4
8.4–11.5
>11.5
2.1.3
Rural education
Survey population of farmers with high school degree or above / total survey number of farmers × 100
%
0–22.5
22.5–45
45–90
>90
2.1.4
Irrigation coverage
Effective irrigation area / cultivated land area × 100
%
<50
50–60
60–70
>70
2.1.5
Land transfer
Land transfer area / regional cultivated land area × 100
%
<20
20–40
40–60
>60
Economic status
2.2.1
Income equality
Urban resident disposable income/rural resident disposable income
?
>2.0
1.6–2.0
1.2–1.6
<1.2
2.2.2
Farmer income
Statistical data
10,000 yuan
<0.72
0.72–2.80
2.80–8.66
>8.66
2.2.3
Agricultural income
Rural resident agricultural income / total income of farmers
%
0–10
10–20
20–40
>40
Dietary intake
2.3.1
Animal-derived food consumption
Animal protein production / (animal protein production + plant protein production)
%
<20
20–40
40–55
>55
2.3.2
Protein intake
∑ (Main food consumption of residents × protein content)
kg·person–1· yr–1
<14.6 or >34.7
14.6–18.3 or 29.2–34.7
23.7–29.2
18.3–23.7
Eco- environment
Waste utilization
3.1.1
Animal waste recycling
Resource utilization of manure / manure production of livestock and poultry × 100
%
<35
35–55
55–75
>75
3.1.2
Crop residues recycling
(Amount of straw returning to the field + amount of straw feeding + Amount of straw for electricity generation) / amount of straw produced × 100
%
<45
45–65
65–85
>85
3.1.3
Plastic film recycling
Recycling agricultural plastic film / Agriculture plastic film usage × 100
%
<40
40–60
60–80
>80
Environmental pressure
3.2.1
Crop-livestock system N surplus
(Total N input in farmland ? N absorption in straw ? N absorption in harvesting area) / cultivated land area
kg·ha–1
>270
180–270
90–180
<90
3.2.2
Soil erosion#
Soil erosion modulus = soil erosion amount / unit area / unit time
t·km–2·yr–1
>5000
2500–5000
500–2500
<500
3.2.3
Soil erosion#
Proportion of soil erosion area = soil erosion area / total area × 100
%
>30
20–30
10–20
<10
3.2.4
Animal carrying capacity
Regional livestock and poultry breeding standard number of animals / cultivated land area
LU·ha–1
>2.7
1.9–2.7
1.1–1.9
<1.1
Environmental quality
3.3.1
Surface water quality
Percentage of surface water above Level-IV (National Standard)
%
<50
50–70
70–90
>90
3.3.2
Groundwater quality
(Sample points with water quality of IV, V and inferior V) / total measurement sample points × 100
%
>50
30–50
10–30
<10
3.3.3
Soil pesticide pollution
Statistical data
%
>10
5–10
2–5
<2
3.3.4
Soil heavy metal pollution
Exceeded points / total monitoring points × 100
%
>10
5–10
2–5
<2
3.3.5
Air quality
Statistical data
day
>30
20–30
10–20
<10
Environmental cost
3.4.1
Ammonia emission
(Fertilizer + NH3 emissions from humans and animals) / cultivated land area × 100
kg·ha–1
>140
120–140
100–120
<100
3.4.2
N use efficiency in food system
(Planting N input + animal husbandry N input ? food N content) / food N content
kg·kg–1
>5
4–5
3–4
<3
3.4.3
GHG emissions
(GHG emissions from animal husbandry + GHG emissions from crop farming) / cultivated land area
kg·ha–1 CO2-eq
>6500
5000–6500
3500–5000
<3500
Tab.1
Fig.1
Overall score
AGD levels
0–25
Low
25–50
Moderate
50–75
Good
75–100
Excellent
Tab.2
Fig.2
Fig.3
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
Fig.7
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