The use of carbon nanomaterials in membrane distillation membranes: a review
Sebastian Leaper1, Ahmed Abdel-Karim1,2, Patricia Gorgojo1()
1. Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, School of Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK 2. Water Pollution Research Department, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
Membrane distillation (MD) is a thermal-based separation technique with the potential to treat a wide range of water types for various applications and industries. Certain challenges remain however, which prevent it from becoming commercially widespread including moderate permeate flux, decline in separation performance over time due to pore wetting and high thermal energy requirements. Nevertheless, its attractive characteristics such as high rejection (ca. 100%) of non-volatile species, its ability to treat highly saline solutions under low operating pressures (typically atmospheric) as well as its ability to operate at low temperatures, enabling waste-heat integration, continue to drive research interests globally. Of particular interest is the class of carbon-based nanomaterials which includes graphene and carbon nanotubes, whose wide range of properties have been exploited in an attempt to overcome the technical challenges that MD faces. These low dimensional materials exhibit properties such as high specific surface area, high strength, tuneable hydrophobicity, enhanced vapour transport, high thermal and electrical conductivity and others. Their use in MD has resulted in improved membrane performance characteristics like increased permeability and reduced fouling propensity. They have also enabled novel membrane capabilities such as in-situ fouling detection and localised heat generation. In this review we provide a brief introduction to MD and describe key membrane characteristics and fabrication methods. We then give an account of the various uses of carbon nanomaterials for MD applications, focussing on polymeric membrane systems. Future research directions based on the findings are also suggested.
. [J]. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2021, 15(4): 755-774.
Sebastian Leaper, Ahmed Abdel-Karim, Patricia Gorgojo. The use of carbon nanomaterials in membrane distillation membranes: a review. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng., 2021, 15(4): 755-774.
Flux enhancement (15%) due to reduced permeate side boundary layer and faster vapour removal.
[86]
PVDF
Addition of GNPs to PVDF by phase inversion
Increase hydrophobicity and permeability
Feed solution: brine from RO treated coal seam gas water Feed temp: 60 °C Coolant temp: 20 °C Feed flow rate: 24 L?h-1 Coolant flow rate: 24 L?h-1 Configuration: AGMD
Flux: 20.5 LMH Rejection: 99.99%
Flux enhancement (72%) and improved long term performance
[75]
PVDF
Addition of GO and APTS-functionalised GO into phase inversion dope solution
Increase permeability by improving pore structure
Feed solution: 35 g?L-1 NaCl Feed temp: 85 °C Coolant temp: 20 °C Feed flow rate: 380 mL?min-1 Coolant flow rate: not specified Configuration: AGMD
Flux enhancements (52 and 86%) with GO and GO-APTS addition, respectively. Mostly attributed to higher surface and bulk porosity
[77]
CNT bucky paper
Thin sputtered PTFE coating followed by hot pressing at 80 °C
Improve in hydrophobic character and mechanical strength
Feed solution: 35 g?L-1 NaCl Feed temp: 95 °C Permeate temp: 5 °C Feed flow rate: 300 mL?min-1 Permeate flow rate: not specified Configuration: DCMD
Flux: 7.5 LMH Rejection: 99.9%
Higher contact angle and 30% higher porosity than commercial PTFE membrane (Pall) but a reduction in the flux by over 2-fold owing to increased active layer thickness
[87]
PTFE
Few-layer graphene grown on a Ni substrate by ambient atmosphere CVD from soy bean oil and wet-transferred to PTFE commercial membrane
Reduce the fouling propensity of PTFE membranes when treating surfactant-containing feed water
Feed solution: (a) 70 g?L-1 NaCl (A); (b) A+ 1 mmol?L-1 SDS; (c) A+ 1 g?L-1 mineral oil+ 1 mmol?L-1 NaHCO3 Feed temp: 60 °C Permeate temp: 20 °C Feed flow rate/(L?h-1): (a) and (c) 30; (b) 6 Permeate flow rate/(L?h-1): (a) and (c) 30; (b) 6 Configuration: DCMD
Flux (initial)/LMH: (a) 50; (b) ca. 47; (c) ca. 56
Enhancement in flux and antifouling properties when tested using feeds containing surfactant and oil emulsion over 72 h
[88]
PVDF
PVDF/PDA/GO composite coating by evaporation-assisted deposition of GO cast with a casting knife
The relative content of different oxygenic groups of GO was tuned by varying oxidation temperature (50, 60 and 70 °C)
Feed solution: 1000 mg?L-1 NaCl solution Feed temp: 60 °C Coolant temp: 20 °C Flow rate: not specified Configuration: DCMD
Flux/LMH: 15.4 initially and improved to 17.8 Rejection: 99.9%
Stable flux over 12 h operation with maintained conductivity at ca. µS?cm-1 while plain PVDF dropped conductivity to 20 µS?cm-1
[89]
PVDF
Janus PVDF/f-MWCNTs membrane with spray-coated CNT and PVA layers
High water permeability and heat conduction of the CNT layer, as suggested by the mass-heat transfer studies. Moreover, antifouling properties of the modified membrane were noted for treating a hexadecane emulsion of 1000 mg?L-1
Feed solution: 5000 mg?L-1 NaCl solution Feed temp: 55-75 °C Coolant temp: 15 °C Flow rate: 500 mL?min-1 (feed), and 200 mL?min-1 (permeate) Configuration: DCMD
Flux: 13.6 to 14.3 LMH Rejection: 99.9%
Improved antifouling features (when tested for 17.5 h) when treating a hexadecane emulsion
[90]
Polysulfone
PVDF/MWCNT blended phase inversion membrane
Comparative performance evaluations of nanomaterials mixed into polysulfone. Best performance was obtained from MWCNT compared to SiO2, ZnO, and TiO2. Such behavior was attributed to higher hydrophobicity of MWCNT-based membrane
Feed solution: 2000-50000 g?L-1 NaCl solution Feed temp: 40-60 °C Coolant temp: 20 °C Flow rate: 1-7 L?min-1 (feed), and 5-35 L?min-1 (permeate) Configuration: VEDCMD
Flux: 24.79 to 41.58 LMH Rejection: 99.9%
Low quantities of MWCNT improved the flux of polysulfone by 67%
[82]
PTFE
Carbon nanotube coating immobilized on PTFE substrate
Ammonia removal by CNIMs was markedly superior to that of the original PTFE membrane, while functionalized CNIM showed the best performance in terms of flux, mass transfer coefficients and selectivity
CNIMs-based membranes posed higher ammonia removal than that with the original PTFE membrane. The f-CNTs showed the highest flux, ammonia recovery and mass transfer coefficients under all operational conditions
[91]
PVDF
Graphene-PVDF phase inversion membranes
Commercial PVDF polymer was functionalized with the aromatic rings of styrene to improve adhesion of graphene
Functionalization of PVDF with styrene increased the porosity but reduced the mechanical properties compared to pristine PVDF which could be recovered after adhesion with graphene
[92]
PAN
Vacuum-filtered GO coating with intercalated SiO2 nanoparticles
Increase the spacing between GO sheets and increase roughness for improved hydrophobicity
Feed solution: 35 g?L-1 NaCl solution + SDS (0.4 mmol?L-1) or humic acid (30 mg?L-1) Feed temp: 40-60 °C Vacuum pressure: 300 Pa Flow rate: 120 L?h-1 (feed) Configuration: VMD
Flux: 13.59 LMH (at 60 °C) Rejection: 99.99%
The intercalation of the nanoparticles increased the flux through the membrane compared to neat GO and the flux and rejection were stable with SDS and HA in the feed
[93]
Tab.1
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Fig.7
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