1. School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China 2. School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
Microwave-assisted pyrolysis is an effective method for recycling plastic wastes into oils that can be used for aviation fuels. In this study, energy and economic analyses of aviation oil production from microwave-assisted pyrolysis of polystyrene were performed. The total energy efficiency, recovered energy efficiency, unitary cost, unitary energy economic cost, relative cost difference, and energy economic factor were detailed. And the effects of microwave power, pyrolysis temperature, microwave absorbent loading, and microwave absorbent type on these parameters were covered. It was found that pyrolysis temperature has the most significant effect on the unitary cost and unitary energy economic cost of aviation oil, and-microwave absorbent type has a significant influence on energy economic factor during the whole microwave-assisted pyrolysis process. The optimum reaction conditions at the tonnage system for pyrolysis of 1 t polystyrene were microwave power of 650 W, pyrolysis temperature of 460 °C, and silicon carbide (microwave absorbent) at a loading of 2 t (twice than feedstock loading). At these optimal conditions, the total energy efficiency, recovered energy efficiency, unitary cost, unitary energy economic cost, relative cost difference, and energy economic factor were 62.78%, 96.51%, 3.21 × 104 yuan·t–1, 779 yuan·GJ–1, 1.49, and 71.02%, respectively.
According to the price of recycled PS in the market
Electricity cost
0.51
yuan·kW–1·h–1
The electric charge standard in Harbin City, Heilongjiang Province, China
Tonnage microwave oven price
3000000
yuan
The quoted price according to evaluation by the manufacturer
Interest rate
2.75
%
Interest rate in China (year 2023)
Number of annual batches
3500
–
Calculated based on 10 batch production per day (350 days)
Microwave oven lifespan
8
year
Assumption
Tab.1
Microwave power/W
HHVoil/(GJ·t–1)
Qoil/GJ
QPS/GJ
Qelectricity/GJ
Qinput/GJ
450
41.52
35.02
42.22
28.80
71.02
550
41.78
38.21
42.22
24.60
66.82
650
41.25
40.75
42.22
22.68
64.90
750
41.35
37.26
42.22
20.16
62.38
850
41.33
36.25
42.22
23.28
65.50
Tab.2
Fig.2
Microwave power/W
UCoil/(yuan·t–1)
CED/yuan
fEC%
rEC
450
3.87 × 104
1.20 × 104
60.68
1.79
550
3.50 × 104
9.14 × 103
66.97
1.62
650
3.21 × 104
7.56 × 103
71.02
1.49
750
3.48 × 104
7.65 × 103
70.78
1.77
850
3.59 × 104
9.09 × 103
67.09
1.76
Tab.3
Fig.3
Pyrolysis temperature/°C
HHVoil/(GJ·t–1)
Qoil/GJ
QPS/GJ
Qelectricity/GJ
Qinput/GJ
340
42.17
23.62
42.22
27.36
69.58
400
41.29
33.17
42.22
21.60
63.82
460
41.25
40.75
42.22
22.68
64.90
520
40.83
37.20
42.22
21.36
63.58
580
41.17
34.90
42.22
21.72
63.94
Tab.4
Fig.4
Pyrolysis temperature/°C
UCoil/(yuan·t–1)
CED/yuan
fEC/%
rEC
340
5.79 × 104
1.51 × 104
55.09
3.18
400
3.93 × 104
9.48 × 103
66.15
2.08
460
3.21 × 104
7.56 × 103
71.02
1.49
520
3.46 × 104
8.14 × 103
69.48
1.75
580
3.73 × 104
8.99 × 103
67.32
1.92
Tab.5
Fig.5
Microwave absorbent loading/t
HHVoil/(GJ·t–1)
Qoil/GJ
QPS/GJ
Qelectricity/GJ
Qinput/GJ
1.0
40.95
33.76
42.22
24.12
66.34
1.5
41.45
38.13
42.22
22.68
64.90
2.0
41.25
40.75
42.22
22.68
64.90
2.5
41.69
38.73
42.22
25.68
67.90
3.0
41.99
35.83
42.22
30.00
72.22
Tab.6
Fig.6
Microwave absorbent loading/t
UCoil/(yuan·t–1)
CED/yuan
fEC/%
rEC
1.0
3.87 × 104
1.04 × 104
64.15
1.98
1.5
3.45 × 104
8.38 × 103
68.87
1.66
2.0
3.21 × 104
7.56 × 103
71.02
1.49
2.5
3.46 × 104
9.42 × 103
66.29
1.57
3.0
3.84 × 104
1.23 × 104
60.14
1.71
Tab.7
Fig.7
Fig.8
Microwave absorbent type
HHVoil/(GJ·t–1)
Qoil/GJ
QPS/GJ
Qelectricity/GJ
Qinput/GJ
Fe
41.33
38.07
42.22
95.88
138.10
Fe3O4
41.45
39.42
42.22
43.80
86.02
FeS2
40.23
37.28
42.22
42.51
84.73
SiC
41.25
40.75
42.22
22.68
64.90
Tab.8
Microwave absorbent type
UCoil/(yuan·t–1)
CED/yuan
fEC/%
rEC
Fe
1.52 × 105
7.08 × 104
20.75
5.60
Fe3O4
1.22 × 105
2.85 × 104
39.42
6.65
FeS2
1.24 × 105
2.79 × 104
39.90
7.14
SiC
3.21 × 104
7.56 × 103
71.02
1.49
Tab.9
Fig.9
Fig.10
1
R K Mishra , K Mohanty . Bio-oil and biochar production using thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of low-value waste neem seeds over low-cost catalysts: effects of operating conditions on product yields and studies of physicochemical characteristics of bio-oil and biochar. Biochar, 2021, 3(4): 641–656 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-021-00105-2
2
M Lockwood . The political sustainability of climate policy: the case of the UK Climate Change Act. Global Environmental Change, 2013, 23(5): 1339–1348 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.001
3
E Saracevic , D Woess , F Theuretzbacher , A Friedl , A Miltner . Techno-economic assessment of providing control energy reserves with a biogas plant. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2018, 12(4): 763–771 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11705-018-1776-x
4
Z Wu , X Huang , R Chen , X Mao , X Qi . The United States and China on the paths and policies to carbon neutrality. Journal of Environmental Management, 2022, 320: 115785 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115785
5
J Wang , W Yao , Z Cui , Y Gao . Energy, exergy, and exergoeconomic analysis of solar-driven solid oxide electrolyzer system integrated with waste heat recovery for syngas production. Journal of Thermal Science, 2023, 32(1): 135–152 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11630-022-1723-5
6
D P Hanak , V Manovic . Linking renewables and fossil fuels with carbon capture via energy storage for a sustainable energy future. Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering, 2020, 14(3): 453–459 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11705-019-1892-2
7
M Guo , W Song , J Buhain . Bioenergy and biofuels: history, status, and perspective. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 42: 712–725 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.013
8
Q Li , X Yuan , X Hu , E Meers , H C Ong , W H Chen , P Duan , S Zhang , K B Lee , Y S Ok . Co-liquefaction of mixed biomass feedstocks for bio-oil production: a critical review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2022, 154: 111814 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111814
9
J Jiang , K Shi , X Zhang , K Yu , H Zhang , J He , Y Ju , J Liu . From plastic waste to wealth using chemical recycling: a review. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2022, 10(1): 106867 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.106867
10
J Datta , P Kopczyńska . From polymer waste to potential main industrial products: actual state of recycling and recovering. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2016, 46(10): 905–946 https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2016.1180227
11
Europe Plastics. Plastics—the fast facts 2023. https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-fast-facts-2023/
12
C Liu , Y Xie , D Gao , X Shi , Z Rao . Fabrication of fire-retardant building materials via a hyper-crosslinking chemical conversion process from waste polystyrenes. Energy and Built Environment, 2022, 3(2): 226–232 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbenv.2021.01.008
13
S Cai , B Zhang , L Cremaschi . Review of moisture behavior and thermal performance of polystyrene insulation in building applications. Building and Environment, 2017, 123: 50–65 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.06.034
14
S S Alam , A H Husain , N A Khan . Plastic waste management via thermochemical conversion of plastics into fuel: a review. Energy Sources. Part A, Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2022, 44(3): 1–20 https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2022.2097750
15
T Xayachak , N Haque , R Parthasarathy , S King , N Emami , D Lau , B K Pramanik . Pyrolysis for plastic waste management: an engineering perspective. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2022, 10(6): 108865 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.108865
16
N Chaukura , W Gwenzi , T Bunhu , D T Ruziwa , I Pumure . Potential uses and value-added products derived from waste polystyrene in developing countries: a review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2016, 107: 157–165 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.10.031
17
C Loos , T Syrovets , A Musyanovych , V Mailander , K Landfester , G U Nienhaus , T Simmet . Functionalized polystyrene nanoparticles as a platform for studying bio-nano interactions. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology, 2014, 5(1): 2403–2412 https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.5.250
18
S M R Mirkarimi , S Bensaid , D Chiaramonti . Conversion of mixed waste plastic into fuel for diesel engines through pyrolysis process: a review. Applied Energy, 2022, 327: 120040 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120040
19
Z YangF LüH ZhangW WangL ShaoJ YeP He. Is incineration the terminator of plastics and microplastics? Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2021, 401: 123429
20
Z A Hussein , Z M Shakor , M Alzuhairi , F Al-Sheikh . The yield of gasoline range hydrocarbons from plastic waste pyrolysis. Energy Sources. Part A, Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2022, 44(1): 718–731 https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2022.2050851
21
F Motasemi , M T Afzal . A review on the microwave-assisted pyrolysis technique. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013, 28: 317–330 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.008
22
Y Zhang , Y Cui , S Liu , L Fan , N Zhou , P Peng , Y Wang , F Guo , M Min , Y Cheng . et al.. Fast microwave-assisted pyrolysis of wastes for biofuels production—a review. Bioresource Technology, 2020, 297: 122480 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122480
23
Y Wang , L Ke , Y Peng , Q Yang , Y Liu , Q Wu , Y Tang , H Zhu , L Dai , Z Zeng . et al.. Ex-situ catalytic fast pyrolysis of soapstock for aromatic oil over microwave-driven HZSM-5@SiC ceramic foam. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2020, 402: 126239 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126239
24
D V Suriapparao , R Vinu . Resource recovery from synthetic polymers via microwave pyrolysis using different susceptors. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2015, 113: 701–712 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2015.04.021
25
X Shen , Z Zhao , H Li , X Gao , X Fan . Microwave-assisted pyrolysis of plastics with iron-based catalysts for hydrogen and carbon nanotubes production. Materials Today. Chemistry, 2022, 26: 101166 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtchem.2022.101166
26
R R Mishra , A K Sharma . Microwave-material interaction phenomena: heating mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in material processing. Composites. Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2016, 81: 78–97 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.10.035
27
L Rosi , M Bartoli , M Frediani . Microwave assisted pyrolysis of halogenated plastics recovered from waste computers. Waste Management, 2018, 73: 511–522 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.04.037
28
A Undri , L Rosi , M Frediani , P Frediani . Efficient disposal of waste polyolefins through microwave assisted pyrolysis. Fuel, 2014, 116: 662–671 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.08.037
29
N Zhou , L Dai , Y Lv , H Li , W Deng , F Guo , P Chen , H Lei , R Ruan . Catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes in a continuous microwave assisted pyrolysis system for fuel production. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2021, 418: 129412 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.129412
30
N A Fadhilah , M N Islam , R Rosli . Techno-economic analysis of sawdust and rice husk co-pyrolysis for bio-oil production. Bioresource Technology Reports, 2023, 21: 101233 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2022.101233
31
M B Shemfe , S Gu , P Ranganathan . Techno-economic performance analysis of biofuel production and miniature electric power generation from biomass fast pyrolysis and bio-oil upgrading. Fuel, 2015, 143: 361–372 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.11.078
32
S A Yahya , T Iqbal , M M Omar , M Ahmad . Techno-economic analysis of fast pyrolysis of date palm waste for adoption in Saudi Arabia. Energies, 2021, 14(19): 6048 https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196048
33
D G Kulas , A Zolghadr , U S Chaudhari , D R Shonnard . Economic and environmental analysis of plastics pyrolysis after secondary sortation of mixed plastic waste. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, 384: 135542 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135542
34
H Zhu , J Saddler , X Bi . An economic and environmental assessment of biofuel produced via microwave-assisted catalytic pyrolysis of forest residues. Energy Conversion and Management, 2022, 263: 115723 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115723
35
H Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha , A Fallahi , H Ghasemkhani , M Shafiei , H Ghanavati , C T Chong , S S Lam , M Tabatabaei , M Aghbashlo . Exergetic sustainability evaluation of horse manure biomass valorization by microwave pyrolysis. Fuel, 2022, 323: 124286 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.124286
36
J Sun , J Tao , H Huang , R Ma , S Sun . Promotion of bio-oil production from the microwave pyrolysis of cow dung using pretreated red mud as a bifunctional additive: parameter optimization, energy efficiency evaluation, and mechanism analysis. Environmental Research, 2023, 236: 116806 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.116806
37
H Patel , P Maiti , S Maiti . Techno-economic assessment of bio-refinery model based on co-pyrolysis of cotton boll crop-residue and plastic waste. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, 2022, 16(1): 155–171 https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.2296
38
L Dai , H Zhao , N Zhou , K Cobb , P Chen , Y Cheng , H Lei , R Zou , Y Wang , R Ruan . Catalytic microwave-assisted pyrolysis of plastic waste to produce naphtha for a circular economy. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2023, 198: 107154 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107154
39
S S Thoharudin , Y S Hsiau , S Chen . Design optimization of fluidized bed pyrolysis for energy and exergy analysis using a simplified comprehensive multistep kinetic model. Energy, 2023, 276: 127615 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127615
40
Y Liu , L Xue , J Ma , C Peng , F Bai , Y Li , J Zhao . Three-dimensional numerical simulation, energy efficiency and economic benefit estimation of oil shale in situ pyrolysis process. Geoenergy Science and Engineering, 2023, 227: 211804 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoen.2023.211804
41
S Fan , Y Zhang , T Liu , W Fu , B Li . Microwave-assisted pyrolysis of polystyrene for aviation oil production. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2022, 162: 105425 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105425
42
S Fan , Y Zhang , L Cui , Q Xiong , T Maqsood . Conversion of polystyrene plastic into aviation fuel through microwave-assisted pyrolysis as affected by iron-based microwave absorbents. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 2023, 11(3): 1054–1066 https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c05880
43
A E Mahmoud Fodah , M K Ghosal , D Behera . Bio-oil and biochar from microwave-assisted catalytic pyrolysis of corn stover using sodium carbonate catalyst. Journal of the Energy Institute, 2021, 94: 242–251 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2020.09.008
44
Z Zhao , S M A Abdo , X Wang , H Li , X Li , X Gao . Process intensification on co-pyrolysis of polyethylene terephthalate wastes and biomass via microwave energy: synergetic effect and roles of microwave susceptor. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2021, 158: 105239 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105239
S Chandrasekaran , T Basak , R Srinivasan . Microwave heating characteristics of graphite based powder mixtures. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 2013, 48: 22–27 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.09.008
47
Z Peng , Z Li , X Lin , M Yang , J Y Hwang , Y Zhang , G Li , T Jiang . Microwave power absorption in materials for ferrous metallurgy. Journal of the Minerals Metals & Materials Society, 2017, 69(2): 178–183 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-016-2174-9
