1. Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental System Optimization(Ministry of Education), College of Environmental Sciense and Engineering, North China Electic Power University, Beijing 102206, China 2. School Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Beijng 100083, China 3. Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby 2820, Denmark 4. National Institute of Clean and Low Carbon Energy, Beijing 102211, China 5. Chinese Acadamy of Engineering, Beijing 100088, China
This paper aims to discuss an environmental, social, and economic analysis of energy utilization of crop residues from life cycle perspectives in China. The methodologies employed to achieve this objective are environmental life cycle assessment (E-LCA), life cycle cost (LCC), and social life cycle assessment (S-LCA). Five scenarios are developed based on the conversion technologies and final bioenergy products. The system boundaries include crop residue collection, transportation, pre-treatment, and conversion process. The replaced amounts of energy are also taken into account in the E-LCA analysis. The functional unit is defined as 1 MJ of energy produced. Eight impact categories are considered besides climate change in E-LCA. The investment capital cost and salary cost are collected and compared in the life cycle of the scenarios. Three stakeholders and several subcategories are considered in the S-LCA analysis defined by UNEP/SETAS guidelines. The results show that the energy utilization of crop residue has carbon emission factors of 0.09–0.18 kg (CO2 eq per 1 MJ), and presents a net carbon emissions reduction of 0.03–0.15 kg (CO2 eq per 1 MJ) compared with the convectional electricity or petrol, but the other impacts should be paid attention to in the biomass energy scenarios. The energy utilization of crop residues can bring economic benefit to local communities and the society, but the working conditions of local workers need to be improved in future biomass energy development.
F Gracceva, P Zeniewski. A systemic approach to assessing energy security in a low-carbon EU energy system. Applied Energy, 2014, 123: 335–348 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.12.018
2
B W Ang, W Choong, T Ng. Energy security: definitions, dimensions and indexes. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 42: 1077–1093 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.064
3
S Chu, A Majumdar. Opportunities and challenges for a sustainable energy future. Nature, 2012, 488(7411): 294–303 https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11475
4
O Edenhofer, L Hirth, B Knopf, M Pahle, S Schlömer, E Schmid, F Ueckerdt. On the economics of renewable energy sources. Energy Economics, 2013, 40: S12–S23 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2013.09.015
5
H Lund, B V Mathiesen. Energy system analysis of 100% renewable energy systems—the case of Denmark in years 2030 and 2050. Energy, 2009, 34(5): 524–531 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2008.04.003
6
N Scarlat, J Dallemand, F Monforti-Ferrario, V Nita. The role of biomass and bioenergy in a future bioeconomy: policies and facts. Environmental Development, 2015, 15: 3–34 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2015.03.006
7
E Johnson. Goodbye to carbon neutral: getting biomass footprints right. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 2009, 29(3): 165–168 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2008.11.002
8
W M Budzianowski. Negative carbon intensity of renewable energy technologies involving biomass or carbon dioxide as inputs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16(9): 6507–6521 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.08.016
9
A Arneth, S Sitch, J Pongratz, B D Stocker, P Ciais, B Poulter, A D Bayer, A Bondeau, L Calle, L P Chini, T Gasser, M Fader, P Friedlingstein, E Kato, W Li, M Lindeskog, J E M S Nabel, T A M Pugh, E Robertson, N Viovy, C Yue, S Zaehle. Historical carbon dioxide emissions caused by land-use changes are possibly larger than assumed. Nature Geoscience, 2017, 10(2): 79–84 https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2882
10
E F Lambin, P Meyfroidt. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2011, 108(9): 3465–3472 https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100480108
11
S Bringezu, M O’Brien, H Schütz. Beyond biofuels: assessing global land use for domestic consumption of biomass: a conceptual and empirical contribution to sustainable management of global resources. Land Use Policy, 2012, 29(1): 224–232 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.06.010
12
T Abbasi, S Abbasi. Biomass energy and the environmental impacts associated with its production and utilization. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2010, 14(3): 919–937 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.11.006
13
G M Joselin Herbert, A Unni Krishnan. Quantifying environmental performance of biomass energy. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 59: 292–308 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.254
14
F Cherubini, N D Bird, A Cowie, G Jungmeier, B Schlamadinger, S Woess-Gallasch. Energy-and greenhouse gas-based LCA of biofuel and bioenergy systems: key issues, ranges and recommendations. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2009, 53(8): 434–447 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2009.03.013
L Liu, D Zhuang, D Jiang, J Fu. Assessment of the biomass energy potentials and environmental benefits of Jatropha curcas L. in Southwest China. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2013, 56: 342–350 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.05.030
17
M L G Renó, E E S Lora, J C E Palacio, O J Venturini, J Buchgeister, O Almazan. A LCA (life cycle assessment) of the methanol production from sugarcane bagasse. Energy, 2011, 36(6): 3716–3726 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.12.010
18
T F Astrup, D Tonini, R Turconi, A Boldrin. Life cycle assessment of thermal waste-to-energy technologies: review and recommendations. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 2015, 37: 104–115 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.06.011
19
M Patel, X Zhang, A Kumar. Techno-economic and life cycle assessment on lignocellulosic biomass thermochemical conversion technologies: a review. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 53: 1486–1499 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.070
20
J Browne, A Nizami, T Thamsiriroj, J D Murphy. Assessing the cost of biofuel production with increasing penetration of the transport fuel market: a case study of gaseous biomethane in Ireland. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2011, 15(9): 4537–4547 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.098
S Fazio, L Barbanti. Energy and economic assessments of bio-energy systems based on annual and perennial crops for temperate and tropical areas. Renewable Energy, 2014, 69: 233–241 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.03.045
23
H Keller, N Rettenmaier, G A Reinhardt. Integrated life cycle sustainability assessment—a practical approach applied to biorefineries. Applied Energy, 2015, 154: 1072–1081 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.095
24
E Ekener, J Hansson, A Larsson, P Peck. Developing life cycle sustainability assessment methodology by applying values-based sustainability weighting-tested on biomass based and fossil transportation fuels. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 181: 337–351 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.211
25
G Zhao. Assessment of potential biomass energy production in China towards 2030 and 2050. International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 2018, 37(1): 47–66 https://doi.org/10.1080/14786451.2016.1231677
26
Asian Development Bank. Preparing National Strategy for Rural Biomass Renewable Energy Development. Building Science. Manila: Asian Development Bank, 2008
27
Ministry of Agriculture. National Inventory and Evaluation Report of Crop Straw Resources. Beijing: Ministry of Agriculture of China, 2010 (in Chinese)
28
H Y Zhan. Supply and utilization of non-wood fibers and waste papers in China’s per industry. China Pulp & Paper, 2010, 8: 021
Ministry of Agriculture of China. Agricultural Biomass Energy Development Plan (2007–2015). Beijing, China, 2007 (in Chinese)
32
National Energy Administration of China. China Plans Nationwide Use of Ethanol Gasoline by 2020. Beijing, China 2017 (in Chinese)
33
M Jaleta, M Kassie, O Erenstein. Determinants of maize stover utilization as feed, fuel and soil amendment in mixed crop-livestock systems, Ethiopia. Agricultural Systems, 2015, 134: 17–23 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.08.010
34
A Lehtomäki, T A Viinikainen, J A Rintala. Screening boreal energy crops and crop residues for methane biofuel production. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2008, 32(6): 541–550 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2007.11.013
35
International Energy Agency. Technology Roadmap-biofuels for Transport. Paris, France, 2011
36
N Abdoulmoumine, S Adhikari, A Kulkarni, S Chattanathan. A review on biomass gasification syngas cleanup. Applied Energy, 2015, 155: 294–307 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.05.095
37
W Lan, G Chen, X Zhu, X Wang, B Xu. Progress in techniques of biomass conversion into syngas. Journal of the Energy Institute, 2015, 88(2): 151–156 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2014.05.003
38
ISO. Environmental management–life cycle assessment–principles and framework. ISO 14040, 2006
39
ISO. Environmental management–life cycle assessment–requirements and guidelines. ISO 14044, 2006
40
C Benoît, G A Norris, S Valdivia, A Ciroth, A Moberg, U Bos, S Prakash, C Ugaya, T Beck. The guidelines for social life cycle assessment of products: just in time! International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2010, 15(2): 156–163 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-009-0147-8
41
A Jørgensen, I T Herrmann, A Bjørn. Analysis of the link between a definition of sustainability and the life cycle methodologies. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2013, 18(8): 1440–1449 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0617-x
42
S Russo Garrido, J Parent, L Beaulieu, J P Revéret. A literature review of type I S-LCA—making the logic underlying methodological choices explicit. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2018, 23(3): 432–444 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1067-z
43
R Hoogmartens, S Van Passel, K Van Acker, M Dubois. Bridging the gap between LCA, LCC and CBA as sustainability assessment tools. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 2014, 48: 27–33 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.05.001
44
S Valdivia, C M Ugaya, J Hildenbrand, M Traverso, B Mazijn, G Sonnemann. A UNEP/SETAC approach towards a life cycle sustainability assessment—our contribution to Rio 20. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2013, 18(9): 1673–1685 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0529-1
45
D Jiang, D Zhuang, J Fu, Y Huang, K Wen. Bioenergy potential from crop residues in China: availability and distribution. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012, 16(3): 1377–1382 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.12.012
46
V B Agbor, N Cicek, R Sparling, A Berlin, D B Levin. Biomass pretreatment: fundamentals toward application. Biotechnology Advances, 2011, 29(6): 675–685 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.05.005
47
A Evans, V Strezov, T J Evans. Assessment of sustainability indicators for renewable energy technologies. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009, 13(5): 1082–1088 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.03.008
48
United Nations Environment Programme. Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products. Paris: United Nations Environment Programme—Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Life Cycle Initiative, 2009
49
C Miret, P Chazara, L Montastruc, S Negny, S Domenech. Design of bioethanol green supply chain: comparison between first and second generation biomass concerning economic, environmental and social criteria. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 2016, 85: 16–35 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2015.10.008
50
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Special report on renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation. 2011, available at the website of srren.ipcc-wg3.de
51
Editorial Committee of China Electric Power. China Electric Power Yearbook 2015. Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2015
52
G Wernet, C Bauer, B Steubing, J Reinhard, E Moreno-Ruiz, B Weidema. The ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): overview and methodology. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, 21(9): 1218–1230 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1087-8
X Wang, F Yamauchi, K Otsuka, J Huang. Wage growth, landholding, and mechanization in Chinese agriculture. World Development, 2016, 86: 30–45 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.05.002
55
C Benoit-Norris, D A Cavan, G Norris. Identifying social impacts in product supply chains: overview and application of the social hotspot database. Sustainability, 2012, 4(9): 1946–1965 https://doi.org/10.3390/su4091946
56
K Subramanian, C Chau, W K Yung. Relevance and feasibility of the existing social LCA methods and case studies from a decision-making perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018, 171: 690–703 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.006
J Yang, B Chen. Global warming impact assessment of a crop residue gasification project—a dynamic LCA perspective. Applied Energy, 2014, 122: 269–279 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.034
59
S González-García, D Iribarren, A Susmozas, J Dufour, R J Murphy. Life cycle assessment of two alternative bioenergy systems involving Salix spp. biomass: bioethanol production and power generation. Applied Energy, 2012, 95: 111–122 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.02.022
60
P Thornley, P Gilbert, S Shackley, J Hammond. Maximizing the greenhouse gas reductions from biomass: the role of life cycle assessment. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2015, 81: 35–43 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.05.002
61
M Boschiero, F Cherubini, C Nati, S Zerbe. Life cycle assessment of bioenergy production from orchards woody residues in Northern Italy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 112: 2569–2580 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.094
62
R Turconi, D Tonini, C F Nielsen, C G Simonsen, T Astrup. Environmental impacts of future low-carbon electricity systems: detailed life cycle assessment of a Danish case study. Applied Energy, 2014, 132: 66–73 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.06.078
63
A T Gullberg, D Ohlhorst, M Schreurs. Towards a low carbon energy future—renewable energy cooperation between Germany and Norway. Renewable Energy, 2014, 68: 216–222 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.02.001
64
H Yan, J Liu, H Q Huang, B Tao, M Cao. Assessing the consequence of land use change on agricultural productivity in China. Global and Planetary Change, 2009, 67(1-2): 13–19 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.12.012
S Nishiguchi, T Tabata. Assessment of social, economic, and environmental aspects of woody biomass energy utilization: direct burning and wood pellets. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016, 57: 1279–1286 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.213
67
R Cowell, G Bristow, M Munday. Acceptance, acceptability and environmental justice: the role of community benefits in wind energy development. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2011, 54(4): 539–557 https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2010.521047
68
J Sun, J Chen, Y Xi, J Hou. Mapping the cost risk of agricultural residue supply for energy application in rural China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2011, 19(2-3): 121–128 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.02.007
69
S Q Zhang, M S Deng, M Shan, C Zhou, W Liu, X Xu, X Yang. Energy and environmental impact assessment of straw return and substitution of straw briquettes for heating coal in rural China. Energy Policy, 2019, 128: 654–664 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.01.038
70
A J Liska, H Yang, M Milner, S Goddard, H Blanco-Canqui, M P Pelton, X X Fang, H Zhu, A E Suyker. Biofuels from crop residue can reduce soil carbon and increase CO2 emissions. Nature Climate Change, 2014, 4(5): 398–401 https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2187
71
C Cambero, T Sowlati. Assessment and optimization of forest biomass supply chains from economic, social and environmental perspectives—a review of literature. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2014, 36: 62–73 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.04.041
