Latest research progress for LBE coolant reactor of China initiative accelerator driven system project
Long GU1(), Xingkang SU2
1. Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; School of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; School of Nuclear Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China 2. Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; School of Nuclear Science and Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
China’s accelerator driven subcritical system (ADS) development has made significant progress during the past decade. With the successful construction and operation of the international prototype of ADS superconducting proton linac, the lead-based critical/subcritical zero-power facility VENUS-II and the comprehensive thermal-hydraulic and material test facilities for LBE (lead bismuth eutectic) coolant, China is playing a pivotal role in advanced steady-state operations toward the next step, the ADS project. The China initiative Accelerator Driven System (CiADS) is the next facility for China’s ADS program, aimed to bridge the gaps between the ADS experiment and the LBE cooled subcritical reactor. The total power of the CiADS will reach 10 MW. The CiADS engineering design was approved by Chinese government in 2018. Since then, the CiADS project has been fully transferred to the construction application stage. The subcritical reactor is an important part of the whole CiADS project. Currently, a pool-type LBE cooled fast reactor is chosen as the subcritical reactor of the CiADS. Physical and thermal experiments and software development for LBE coolant were conducted simultaneously to support the design and construction of the CiADS LBE-cooled subcritical reactor. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce the efforts made in China in the LBE-cooled fast reactor to provide certain supporting data and reference solutions for further design and development for ADS. Thus, the roadmap of China’s ADS, the development process of the CiADS, the important design of the current CiADS subcritical reactor, and the efforts to build the LBE-cooled fast reactor are presented.
. [J]. Frontiers in Energy, 2021, 15(4): 810-831.
Long GU, Xingkang SU. Latest research progress for LBE coolant reactor of China initiative accelerator driven system project. Front. Energy, 2021, 15(4): 810-831.
C Wang, A Engels, Z Wang. Overview of research on China’s transition to low-carbon development: the role of cities, technologies, industries and the energy system. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018, 81: 1350–1364 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.099
2
Y Chen, G Martin, C Chabert, et al.. Prospects in China for nuclear development up to 2050. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2018, 103: 81–90 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2017.11.011
3
S Andriamonje, A Angelopoulos, A Apostolakis, et al.. Experimental determination of the energy generated in nuclear cascades by a high energy beam. Physics Letters [Part B], 1995, 348(3–4): 697–709 https://doi.org/10.1016/0370-2693(95)00154-D
4
C Rubbia, J A Rubio, S Buono, et al.. Conceptual design of a fast neutron operated high power energy amplifier. Technical Reports, CERN-AT-95-44 ET, 1995
5
NEA-OECD. Physics and Safety of Transmutation Systems: A Status Report. Paris: NEA-OCED, 2006
6
W L Zhan, H S Xu. Advanced fission energy program–ADS transmutation system. Bulletin of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2012, 27(3): 375–381 (in Chinese)
7
A C Mueller. Prospects for transmutation of nuclear waste and associated proton accelerator technology. The European Physical Journal Special Topics, 2009, 176(1): 179–191 https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2009-01157-8
8
M Salvatores, I Slessarev, M Uematsu. A global physics approach to transmutation of radioactive nuclei. Nuclear Science and Engineering, 1994, 116(1): 1–18 https://doi.org/10.13182/NSE94-A21476
9
C D Bowman, E D Arthur, P W Lisowski, et al.. Nuclear energy generation and waste transmutation using an accelerator-driven intense thermal neutron source. Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research, Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1992, 320(1–2): 336–367 https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(92)90795-6
10
H A Abderrahim, P Kupschus, E Malambu, et al.. MYRRHA: a multipurpose accelerator driven system for research & development. Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research, Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 2001, 463(3): 487–494 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9002(01)00164-4
11
K Mishima, H Unesaki, T Misawa, et al.. Research project on accelerator-driven subcritical system using FFAG aaccelerator and Kyoto University critical assembly. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 2007, 44(3): 499–503 https://doi.org/10.1080/18811248.2007.9711314
12
S Ishida, H Sekimoto. Applicability of dynamic programming to the accelerator-driven system (ADS) fuel cycle shuffling scheme for minor actinide (MA) transmutation. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2010, 37(3): 406–411 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2009.11.017
13
T Sasa, K Tsujimoto, T Takizuka, et al.. Code development for the design study of the OMEGA Program accelerator-driven transmutation systems. Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research, Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 2001, 463(3): 495–504 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9002(01)00166-8
14
Y Kurata, T Takizuka, T Osugi, et al.. The accelerator driven system strategy in Japan. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2002, 301(1): 1–7 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(01)00731-0
15
S Saito, K Tsujimoto, K Kikuchi, et al.. Design optimization of ADS plant proposed by JAERI. Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research, Section A, Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 2006, 562(2): 646–649 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2006.02.078
16
C Rubbia, J Aleixandre, S. Andriamonje A European Roadmap for Developing Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS) for Nuclear Waste Incineration. ENEA Report, 2001
17
F Bianchi, C Artioli, K W Burn, et al.. Status and trend of core design activities for heavy metal cooled accelerator driven system. Energy Conversion and Management, 2006, 47(17): 2698–2709 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2006.02.005
18
G S Bauer, M Salvatores, G Heusener. MEGAPIE, a 1 MW pilot experiment for a liquid metal spallation target. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2001, 296(1–3): 17–33 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(01)00561-X
19
F Groeschel, C Fazio, J Knebel, et al.. The MEGAPIE 1 MW target in support to ADS development: status of R&D and design. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2004, 335(2): 156–162 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2004.07.007
K Tsujimoto, T Sasa, K Nishihara, et al.. Accelerator-driven system for transmutation of high-level waste. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2000, 37(1–4): 339–344 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-1970(00)00068-8
22
T Sasa, H Oigawa, K Tsujimoto, et al.. Research and development on accelerator-driven transmutation system at JAERI. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2004, 230(1–3): 209–222 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2003.11.033
23
W S Park, U Shin, S J Han, et al.. HYPER (hybrid power extraction reactor): a system for clean nuclear energy. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2000, 199(1–2): 155–165 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-5493(99)00066-7
24
P A Gokhale, S Deokattey, V Kumar. Accelerator driven systems (ADS) for energy production and waste transmutation: International trends in R&D. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2006, 48(2): 91–102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2005.09.006
25
J R Maiorino, A D Santos, S A Pereira. The utilization of accelerators in subcritical systems for energy generation and nuclear waste transmutation: the world status and a proposal of a national R&D program. Brazilian Journal of Physics, 2003, 33(2): 267–272 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-97332003000200018
26
L K Mansur, T A Gabriel, J R Haines, et al.. R&D for the spallation neutron source mercury target. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2001, 296(1–3): 1–16 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(01)00560-8
27
H A Abderrahim, P D’hondt. MYRRHA: A European experimental ADS for R&D applications status at Mid-2005 and prospective towards implementation. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 2007, 44(3): 491–498 https://doi.org/10.1080/18811248.2007.9711313
28
J Engelen, H Aït Abderrahim, P Baeten, et al.. MYRRHA: preliminary front-end engineering design. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2015, 40(44): 15137–15147 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.03.096
29
N Korepanova, L Gu, L Zhang, et al.. Evaluation of displacement cross-section for neutron-irradiated 15-15Ti steel and its swelling behavior in CiADS radiation environment. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2019, 133: 937–949 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2019.07.035
30
Y L Huang, L B Liu, T C Jiang, et al.. 650 MHz elliptical superconducting RF cavities for CiADS project. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 2020, 988: 164906 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2020.164906
31
R Yu, L Gu, X Sheng, et al.. Review of fuel assembly design in lead-based fast reactors and research progress in fuel assembly of China initiative accelerator driven system. International Journal of Energy Research, 2021, 45(8): 11552–11563 https://doi.org/10.1002/er.6569
32
G Q Xiao, H S Xu, S C Wang. HIAF and CiADS national research facilities: progress and prospect. Nuclear Physics Review, 2017, 34(3): 275–283 (in Chinese)
33
Y C Xu, F L Kang, X Y Sheng. Study on the development of accelerator driven system (ADS) and its spallation target. Nuclear Science and Techniques, 2016, 04(3): 88–97 (in Chinese) https://doi.org/10.12677/NST.2016.43011
34
G X Dai. Nuclear power station driven by accelerator-auxiliary—a clean nuclear energy source. Nuclear Physics Review, 1996, 13(4): 53–58 (in Chinese)
35
S X Fang, N Y Wang, D H He, et al.. Suggestions on accelerator driving sub-critical system (ADS) and sustainable development of nuclear energy. Bulletin of Chinese Academy of Science, 2009, 24(6): 641–644 (in Chinese)
36
P Luo, S C Wang, Z G Hu, et al.. Accelerator driven sub-critical systems—a promising solution for cycling nuclear fuel. Physics (College Park, Md.), 2016, 45(9): 569–577 (in Chinese)
37
D Z Ding. The basic research on physics and technology related to the accelerator driven radioactive clean nuclear power system(ADS). China Basic Science, 2001(1): 15–20 (in Chinese)
38
W L Zhan, L Yang, X S Yan, et al.. Accelerator-driven advanced nuclear energy system and its research progress. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2019, 53(10): 1809–1815
39
J Y Li, L Gu, C Yao, et al.. Neutronic study on a new concept of accelerator driven subcritical system in China. In: 26th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering, London, UK, 2018
40
J Y Li, L Gu, D W Wang, et al.. The three dimensional immersive training platform for China initiative accelerator driven subcritical system. In: 27th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering, Ibaraki, Japan, 2019
41
J Y Li, Y Dai, L Gu, et al.. Genetic algorithm based temperature control of the dense granular spallation target in China initiative accelerator driven system. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2021, 154(2): 108127 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2021.108127
42
G Wang. A review of research progress in heat exchanger tube rupture accident of heavy liquid metal cooled reactors. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2017, 109: 1–8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2017.05.034
43
T J Peng, L Gu, D W Wang, et al.. Conceptual design of subcritical reactor for Chinese accelerator driven transmutation research facility. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2017, 51(12): 2235–2241
44
P C Shriwise, A Davis, P P H Wilson. Leveraging intel’s embree ray tracing in the DAGMC Toolkit. Transactions of the American Nuclear Society, 2015, 113(pt.1): 717–720
45
J Y Li, L Gu, H S Xu, et al.. FreeCAD based modeling study on MCNPX for accelerator driven system. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2018, 107: 100–109 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2018.04.015
46
J Y Li, L Gu, H S Xu, et al.. CAD modeling study on FLUKA and OpenMC for accelerator driven system simulation. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2018, 114: 329–341 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2017.12.050
47
J E Seifried, P M Gorman, J L Vujic, et al.. Accelerated equilibrium core composition search using a new MCNP-based simulator. In: Joint International Conference on Supercomputing in Nuclear Applications+ Monte Carlo, Paris, France, 2013 https://doi.org/10.1051/snamc/201402207
48
J Y Li, L Gu, R Yu, et al.. Development and validation of burnup-transport code system OMCB for accelerator driven system. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2017, 324: 360–371 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2017.09.012
49
J Y Li, L Gu, H S Xu, et al.. The PyNE-Based burnup analysis method for accelerator-driven subcritical systems. Nuclear Technology, 2021, 207(2): 270–284 https://doi.org/10.1080/00295450.2020.1757963
50
A Moorthi, A Kumar Sharma, K Velusamy. A review of sub-channel thermal hydraulic codes for nuclear reactor core and future directions. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2018, 332(JUN): 329–344 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2018.03.012
51
F Roelofs, V R Gopala, S Jayaraju, et al.. Review of fuel assembly and pool thermal hydraulics for fast reactors. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2013, 265: 1205–1222 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2013.07.018
W M Kays. Turbulent Prandtl number—where are we? ASME Transactions Journal of Heat Transfer, 1994, 116(2): 284–295 https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2911398
54
S Manservisi, F Menghini. A CFD four parameter heat transfer turbulence model for engineering applications in heavy liquid metals. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2014, 69(feb): 312–326 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2013.10.017
55
S Manservisi, F Menghini. Triangular rod bundle simulations of a CFD k-ε-kθ-εθ heat transfer turbulence model for heavy liquid metals. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2014, 273: 251–270 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2014.03.022
56
S Manservisi, F Menghini. CFD simulations in heavy liquid metal flows for square lattice bare rod bundle geometries with a four parameter heat transfer turbulence model. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2015, 295(DEC): 251–260 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2015.10.006
57
D Cerroni, R Da Vià, S Manservisi, et al.. Numerical validation of a k-ε-kθ-εθ heat transfer turbulence model for heavy liquid metals. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2015, 655(1): 012046 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/655/1/012046
58
A Cervone, A Chierici, L Chirco, et al.. CFD simulation of turbulent flows over wire-wrapped nuclear reactor bundles using immersed boundary method. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2020, 1599(1): 012022 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1599/1/012022
59
A Chierici, L Chirco, R Da Vià, et al.. Numerical simulation of a turbulent Lead Bismuth Eutectic flow inside a 19 pin nuclear reactor bundle with a four logarithmic parameter turbulence model. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2019, 1224(1): 012030 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1224/1/012030
60
R Da Vià, S Manservisi, F Menghini. A k–Ω–kθ–Ωθ four parameter logarithmic turbulence model for liquid metals. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2016, 101(oct): 1030–1041 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.05.084
61
R Da Vià, V Giovacchini, S ManservisiA logarithmic turbulent heat transfer model in applications with liquid metals for Pr = 0.01–0.025. Applied Sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 2020, 10(12): 4337 https://doi.org/10.3390/app10124337
62
R Da Vià, S Manservisi. Numerical simulation of forced and mixed convection turbulent liquid sodium flow over a vertical backward facing step with a four parameter turbulence model. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2019, 135: 591–603 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.01.129
63
H G Weller, G Tabor, H Jasak, et al.. A tensorial approach to computational continuum mechanics using object-oriented techniques. Computers in Physics, 1998, 12(6): 620–631 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.168744
64
F Moukalled, L Mangani, M Darwish. The Finite Volume Method in Computational Fluid Dynamics. Berlin: Springer International Publishing, 2016
65
A Shams, A De Santis, F Roelofs. An overview of the AHFM-NRG formulations for the accurate prediction of turbulent flow and heat transfer in low-Prandtl number flows. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2019, 355: 110342 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2019.110342
66
L N Carteciano, D Weinberg, U Müller. Development and analysis of a turbulence model for buoyant flows. In: 4th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Bruxelles, Belgium
67
T Asada, R Aizawa, T Suzuki, et al.. 3D MHD simulation of pressure drop and fluctuation in electromagnetic pump flow. Mechanical Engineering Journal, 2015, 2(5): 15–00230 https://doi.org/10.1299/mej.15-00230
68
H Araseki, I R Kirillov, G V Preslitsky, et al.. Magnetohydrodynamic instability in annular linear induction pump: Part I. experiment and numerical analysis. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2004, 227(1): 29–50 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2003.07.001
69
Q Y Zhang, L Gu, T J Peng, et al.. Safety analysis of CiADS subcritical reactor fuel cladding under beam transient. Nuclear Power Engineering, 2018, 39(5): 51–57 (in Chinese) https://doi.org/10.13832/j.jnpe.2018.05.0051
70
Q Y Zhang, T J Peng, X Sheng, et al.. Response characteristics of CiADS subcritical reactor fuel cladding under beam transient. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2018, 52(05): 931–936
K Wu, B D Welfert, J M Lopez. Complex dynamics in a stratified lid-driven square cavity flow. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 2018, 855: 43–66 https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2018.656
73
T Cai. A semi-implicit spectral method for compressible convection of rotating and density-stratified flows in Cartesian geometry. Journal of Computational Physics, 2016, 310: 342–360 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcp.2016.01.022
74
M R Alam, Y Liu, D K P Yue. Waves due to an oscillating and translating disturbance in a two-layer density-stratified fluid. Journal of Engineering Mathematics, 2009, 65(2): 179–200 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10665-009-9303-1
75
B Baranowski, A L Kawczyński. Experimental determination of the critical rayleigh number in electrolyte solutions with concentration polarization. Electrochimica Acta, 1972, 17(4): 695–699 https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4686(72)80070-7
76
J M Aurnou, P L Olson. Experiments on Rayleigh–Bénard convection, magnetoconvection and rotating magnetoconvection in liquid gallium. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 2001, 430: 283–307 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112000002950
77
S Carsten, W Olaf, S Aleksandr, et al.. Corrosion kinetics of Steel T91 in flowing oxygen-containing lead–bismuth eutectic at 450°C. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2012, 431(1–3): 105–112 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.11.014
78
J Ejenstam, P Szakálos. Long term corrosion resistance of alumina forming austenitic stainless steels in liquid lead. Journal of Nuclear Materials, 2015, 461: 164–170 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2015.03.011
79
L I Sedov. Similarity and Dimensional Methods in Mechanics. 10th ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 1993
80
G Y Su, H Y Gu, X Cheng. Experimental and numerical studies on free surface flow of windowless target. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2012, 43: 142–149 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2012.01.010
81
G K Batchelor. The application of the similarity theory of turbulence to atmospheric diffusion. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 1950, 76(328): 133–146 https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49707632804
82
D J Fan, T J Peng, et al.. Periodicity and transversal pressure distribution in a Wire-wrapped 19-Pin fuel assembly. International Journal of Energy Research, 2020, 45(8): 11837–11850 https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5809
83
Y Q Shi, P Xia, Z L Luo, et al.. ADS sub-critical experimental assembly–Venus 1#. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2005, 5: 447–450
84
W Jiang. Experimental and simulation study of the coupling neutronic behavior of the reactor and spallation target based on Venus II zero-power device. Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree. Hefei: University of science and Technology of China, 2018 (in Chinese)
85
Q F Zhu, H D Luo, W Zhang, et al.. Application of source–Jerk method on Venus 1# sub-critical assembly. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2010, 44(05): 567–570
86
F Liu, Y Q Shi, Q F Zhu, et al.. Measurement of effective delayed neutron fraction for ADS Venus 1# sub-criticality reactor. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2016, 50(08): 1445–1448
87
J Cao, Y Q Shi, P Xia, et al.. ADS transmutation research based on Venus 1#. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2012, 46(10): 1185–1188
88
Q F Zhu, Q Zhou, W Zhang, et al.. ADS Venus-II critical extrapolation experiment. Annual Report of China Institute of Atomic Energy, 2017, (00): 106–107
89
Y Liu, Q Zhou, Q F Zhu, et al.. Reactivity measurement of solid spallation target in Venus-II by period method. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2018, 52(10): 1769–1773
90
B Wan, Q Zhou, L Chen, et al.. Reactivity measurement at Venus-II during control rods drop based on inverse kinetics method. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2018, 338: 284–289 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2018.08.019
91
B Wan, H D Luo, F Ma, et al.. Subcriticality monitoring for lead-based zero power reactor Venus-II using pulsed neutron source method. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2018 52(10): 1762–1768
92
F Liu, W Zhang, Y Liu, et al.. ADS Venus II neutron spectrum measurement experiment. Annual Report of China Institute of Atomic Energy, 2017: 111–112
93
F Wang, Q F Zhu, X X Chen, et al.. Fission rate distribution research for Venus II fast neutron spectrum zone. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2018, 52(1): 107–111
94
W Jiang, L Gu, Q Zhou, et al.. Measurement of tungsten reactivity worth on VENUS-II light water reactor and validation of evaluated nuclear data. Progress in Nuclear Energy, 2018, 108: 81–88 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2018.05.002
95
L Gu, L Chen, Q Zhou, et al.. Measurement of tungsten granular target worth on VENUS-II light water reactor and validation of the granular target model. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2021, 150: 107825 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2020.107825
96
W Jiang, L Gu, Q F Zhu, et al.. Experimental and simulation study on fuel rod value of VENUS-II light water reactor. Atomic Energy Science and Technology, 2018, 52(09): 1665–1670
97
L Zhang, Y W Yang, F Ma, et al.. Deterministic simulation of the static neutronic characteristics for the lead core of VENUS-II facility. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2019, 353: 110258 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2019.110258
98
W Jiang, L Gu, Q F Zhu, et al.. Reactivity worth measurement of the lead target on VENUS-II light water reactor and validation of evaluated nuclear data. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2021, 154: 108106 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2020.108106
99
W Jiang, L Gu, L Zhang, et al.. Validation of neutron evaluated data based on the experimental reactivity worth of tungsten target in CiADS. EPJ Web Conference, 2020, 225: 04026 https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202022504026
J J Park, D P Butt, C A Beard. Review of liquid metal corrosion issues for potential containment materials for liquid lead and lead–bismuth eutectic spallation targets as a neutron source. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 2000, 196(3): 315–325 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-5493(99)00303-9
