1. Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China 2. Changping Laboratory, Beijing 102206, China 3. Department of Infectious Diseases, Research Laboratory of Clinical Virology, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China 4. Department of Policy Science, Central Committee of the Chinese Peasants and Workers Democratic Party, Beijing 100011, China
The record speed at which Chinese scientists identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and shared its genomic sequence with the world, has greatly facilitated the development of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) diagnostics, drugs, and vaccines. It is unprecedented in pandemic control history to develop a dozen successful vaccines in the first year and to immunize over half of the global population in the second year, due to the efforts of the scientific community, biopharmaceutical industry, and regulatory agencies worldwide. The challenges are both great and multidimensional due to the rapid emergence of virus variants and waning of vaccine immunity. Vaccination strategies need to adapt to these challenges to keep population immunity above the herd immunity threshold, by increasing vaccine coverage, especially for older adults and young people, and providing timely booster doses with homologous or heterologous vaccine boosts. Further research should be undertaken to develop more effective vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 variants and to understand the best prime-boost vaccine combinations and immunization strategies to provide sufficient and sustainable immune protection against COVID-19.
. [J]. Frontiers of Medicine, 2022, 16(2): 185-195.
Yiming Shao, Yingqi Wu, Yi Feng, Wenxin Xu, Feng Xiong, Xinxin Zhang. SARS-CoV-2 vaccine research and immunization strategies for improved control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Front. Med., 2022, 16(2): 185-195.
Pfrizer 2 doses+ Pfrizer 3rd dose ?(7 days after third dose)
At least 5 months
88%
93%
92%
81%
USA [49]
J&J 1 dose+ J&J 2nd dose ?(14 days after third dose)
56 days
94%
−
100%
−
Chile [50]
Sinovac 2 doses+ AstraZeneca ?3rd dose (14 days after third ?dose)
5 months
93%
96.30%
98.65%
−
Sinovac 2 doses+ Pfrizer 3rd dose ?(14 days after third dose)
90%
87%
92.68%
−
Sinovac 2 doses+Sinovac 3rd dose ?(14 days after third dose)
80.20%
88%
85.10%
−
Tab.2
Fig.5
1
WHO. WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. 2021
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N Zhu, D Zhang, W Wang, X Li, B Yang, J Song, X Zhao, B Huang, W Shi, R Lu, P Niu, F Zhan, X Ma, D Wang, W Xu, G Wu, GF Gao, W Tan; China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(8): 727–733 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017
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5
F Wu, S Zhao, B Yu, YM Chen, W Wang, ZG Song, Y Hu, ZW Tao, JH Tian, YY Pei, ML Yuan, YL Zhang, FH Dai, Y Liu, QM Wang, JJ Zheng, L Xu, EC Holmes, YZ Zhang. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 2020; 579(7798): 265–269 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3
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8
MD Tanriover, HL Doğanay, M Akova, HR Güner, A Azap, S Akhan, Ş Köse, FŞ Erdinç, EH Akalın, ÖF Tabak, H Pullukçu, Ö Batum, S Şimşek Yavuz, Ö Turhan, MT Yıldırmak, İ Köksal, Y Taşova, V Korten, G Yılmaz, MK Çelen, S Altın, İ Çelik, Y Bayındır, İ Karaoğlan, A Yılmaz, A Özkul, H Gür, S Unal; CoronaVac Study Group. Efficacy and safety of an inactivated whole-virion SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (CoronaVac): interim results of a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial in Turkey. Lancet 2021; 398(10296): 213–222 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01429-X
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9
A Jara, EA Undurraga, C González, F Paredes, T Fontecilla, G Jara, A Pizarro, J Acevedo, K Leo, F Leon, C Sans, P Leighton, P Suárez, H García-Escorza, R Araos. Effectiveness of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in Chile. N Engl J Med 2021; 385(10): 875–884 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2107715
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10
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11
AR Falsey, ME Sobieszczyk, I Hirsch, S Sproule, ML Robb, L Corey, KM Neuzil, W Hahn, J Hunt, MJ Mulligan, C McEvoy, E DeJesus, M Hassman, SJ Little, BA Pahud, A Durbin, P Pickrell, ES Daar, L Bush, J Solis, QO Carr, T Oyedele, S Buchbinder, J Cowden, SL Vargas, AG Benavides, R Call, MC Keefer, BD Kirkpatrick, J Pullman, T Tong, MB Isaacs, D Benkeser, HE Janes, MC Nason, JA Green, EJ Kelly, J Maaske, N Mueller, K Shoemaker, T Takas, RP Marshall, MN Pangalos, T Villafana, A Gonzalez-Lopez; AstraZeneca AZD1222 Clinical Study Group. Phase 3 safety and efficacy of AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) Covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med 2021; [Epub ahead of print] doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2105290 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2105290
pmid: 34587382
12
FP Polack, SJ Thomas, N Kitchin, J Absalon, A Gurtman, S Lockhart, JL Perez, G Pérez Marc, ED Moreira, C Zerbini, R Bailey, KA Swanson, S Roychoudhury, K Koury, P Li, WV Kalina, D Cooper, RW Frenck Jr, LL Hammitt, Ö Türeci, H Nell, A Schaefer, S Ünal, DB Tresnan, S Mather, PR Dormitzer, U Şahin, KU Jansen, WC Gruber; C4591001 Clinical Trial Group. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med 2020; 383(27): 2603–2615 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2034577
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13
N Al Kaabi, Y Zhang, S Xia, Y Yang, MM Al Qahtani, N Abdulrazzaq, M Al Nusair, M Hassany, JS Jawad, J Abdalla, SE Hussein, SK Al Mazrouei, M Al Karam, X Li, X Yang, W Wang, B Lai, W Chen, S Huang, Q Wang, T Yang, Y Liu, R Ma, ZM Hussain, T Khan, M Saifuddin Fasihuddin, W You, Z Xie, Y Zhao, Z Jiang, G Zhao, Y Zhang, S Mahmoud, I ElTantawy, P Xiao, A Koshy, WA Zaher, H Wang, K Duan, A Pan, X Yang. Effect of 2 inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccines on symptomatic COVID-19 infection in adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2021; 326(1): 35–45 https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.8565
pmid: 34037666
14
LR Baden, HM El Sahly, B Essink, K Kotloff, S Frey, R Novak, D Diemert, SA Spector, N Rouphael, CB Creech, J McGettigan, S Khetan, N Segall, J Solis, A Brosz, C Fierro, H Schwartz, K Neuzil, L Corey, P Gilbert, H Janes, D Follmann, M Marovich, J Mascola, L Polakowski, J Ledgerwood, BS Graham, H Bennett, R Pajon, C Knightly, B Leav, W Deng, H Zhou, S Han, M Ivarsson, J Miller, T Zaks; COVE Study Group. Efficacy and safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. N Engl J Med 2021; 384(5): 403–416 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2035389
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DY Logunov, IV Dolzhikova, DV Shcheblyakov, AI Tukhvatulin, OV Zubkova, AS Dzharullaeva, AV Kovyrshina, NL Lubenets, DM Grousova, AS Erokhova, AG Botikov, FM Izhaeva, O Popova, TA Ozharovskaya, IB Esmagambetov, IA Favorskaya, DI Zrelkin, DV Voronina, DN Shcherbinin, AS Semikhin, YV Simakova, EA Tokarskaya, DA Egorova, MM Shmarov, NA Nikitenko, VA Gushchin, EA Smolyarchuk, SK Zyryanov, SV Borisevich, BS Naroditsky, AL Gintsburg; Gam-COVID-Vac Vaccine Trial Group. Safety and efficacy of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine: an interim analysis of a randomised controlled phase 3 trial in Russia. Lancet 2021; 397(10275): 671–681 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00234-8
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16
J Sadoff, G Gray, A Vandebosch, V Cárdenas, G Shukarev, B Grinsztejn, PA Goepfert, C Truyers, H Fennema, B Spiessens, K Offergeld, G Scheper, KL Taylor, ML Robb, J Treanor, DH Barouch, J Stoddard, MF Ryser, MA Marovich, KM Neuzil, L Corey, N Cauwenberghs, T Tanner, K Hardt, J Ruiz-Guiñazú, M Le Gars, H Schuitemaker, J Van Hoof, F Struyf, M Douoguih; ENSEMBLE Study Group. Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2021; 384(23): 2187–2201 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2101544
pmid: 33882225
17
WH Self, MW Tenforde, JP Rhoads, M Gaglani, AA Ginde, DJ Douin, SM Olson, HK Talbot, JD Casey, NM Mohr, A Zepeski, T McNeal, S Ghamande, KW Gibbs, DC Files, DN Hager, A Shehu, ME Prekker, HL Erickson, MN Gong, A Mohamed, DJ Henning, JS Steingrub, ID Peltan, SM Brown, ET Martin, AS Monto, A Khan, CL Hough, LW Busse, CC Ten Lohuis, A Duggal, JG Wilson, AJ Gordon, N Qadir, SY Chang, C Mallow, C Rivas, HM Babcock, JH Kwon, MC Exline, N Halasa, JD Chappell, AS Lauring, CG Grijalva, TW Rice, ID Jones, WB Stubblefield, A Baughman, KN Womack, CJ Lindsell, KW Hart, Y Zhu, L Mills, SN Lester, MM Stumpf, EA Naioti, M Kobayashi, JR Verani, NJ Thornburg, MM Patel; IVY Network. Comparative effectiveness of Moderna, Pfizer-BioNTech, and Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) vaccines in preventing COVID-19 hospitalizations among adults without immunocompromising conditions—United States, March–August 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021; 70(38): 1337–1343 https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7038e1
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18
R Ella, S Reddy, W Blackwelder, V Potdar, P Yadav, V Sarangi, VK Aileni, S Kanungo, S Rai, P Reddy, S Verma, C Singh, S Redkar, S Mohapatra, A Pandey, P Ranganadin, R Gumashta, M Multani, S Mohammad, P Bhatt, L Kumari, G Sapkal, N Gupta, P Abraham, S Panda, S Prasad, B Bhargava, K Ella, KM Vadrevu; COVAXIN Study Group. Efficacy, safety, and lot-to-lot immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (BBV152): interim results of a randomised, double-blind, controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2021; 398(10317): 2173–2184 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02000-6
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20
S Yang, Y Li, L Dai, J Wang, P He, C Li, X Fang, C Wang, X Zhao, E Huang, C Wu, Z Zhong, F Wang, X Duan, S Tian, L Wu, Y Liu, Y Luo, Z Chen, F Li, J Li, X Yu, H Ren, L Liu, S Meng, J Yan, Z Hu, L Gao, GF Gao. Safety and immunogenicity of a recombinant tandem-repeat dimeric RBD-based protein subunit vaccine (ZF2001) against COVID-19 in adults: two randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 and 2 trials. Lancet Infect Dis 2021; 21(8): 1107–1119 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00127-4
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21
FC Zhu, XH Guan, YH Li, JY Huang, T Jiang, LH Hou, JX Li, BF Yang, L Wang, WJ Wang, SP Wu, Z Wang, XH Wu, JJ Xu, Z Zhang, SY Jia, BS Wang, Y Hu, JJ Liu, J Zhang, XA Qian, Q Li, HX Pan, HD Jiang, P Deng, JB Gou, XW Wang, XH Wang, W Chen. Immunogenicity and safety of a recombinant adenovirus type-5-vectored COVID-19 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18 years or older: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet 2020; 396(10249): 479–488 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31605-6
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26
SY Tartof, JM Slezak, H Fischer, V Hong, BK Ackerson, ON Ranasinghe, TB Frankland, OA Ogun, JM Zamparo, S Gray, SR Valluri, K Pan, FJ Angulo, L Jodar, JM McLaughlin. Effectiveness of mRNA BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine up to 6 months in a large integrated health system in the USA: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2021; 398(10309): 1407–1416 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02183-8
pmid: 34619098
27
SJ Thomas, ED Moreira Jr, N Kitchin, J Absalon, A Gurtman, S Lockhart, JL Perez, G Pérez Marc, FP Polack, C Zerbini, R Bailey, KA Swanson, X Xu, S Roychoudhury, K Koury, S Bouguermouh, WV Kalina, D Cooper, RW Frenck Jr, LL Hammitt, Ö Türeci, H Nell, A Schaefer, S Ünal, Q Yang, P Liberator, DB Tresnan, S Mather, PR Dormitzer, U Şahin, WC Gruber, KU Jansen; C4591001 Clinical Trial Group. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine through 6 months. N Engl J Med 2021; 385(19): 1761–1773 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2110345
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28
KB Pouwels, E Pritchard, PC Matthews, N Stoesser, DW Eyre, KD Vihta, T House, J Hay, JI Bell, JN Newton, J Farrar, D Crook, D Cook, E Rourke, R Studley, TEA Peto, I Diamond, AS Walker. Effect of Delta variant on viral burden and vaccine effectiveness against new SARS-CoV-2 infections in the UK. Nat Med 2021; [Epub ahead of print] doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01548-7 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01548-7
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29
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30
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31
F Campbell, B Archer, H Laurenson-Schafer, Y Jinnai, F Konings, N Batra, B Pavlin, K Vandemaele, MD Van Kerkhove, T Jombart, O Morgan, O le Polain de Waroux. Increased transmissibility and global spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern as at June 2021. Euro Surveill 2021; 26(24): 2100509 https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.24.2100509
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32
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33
A Singanayagam, S Hakki, J Dunning, KJ Madon, MA Crone, A Koycheva, N Derqui-Fernandez, JL Barnett, MG Whitfield, R Varro, A Charlett, R Kundu, J Fenn, J Cutajar, V Quinn, E Conibear, W Barclay, PS Freemont, GP Taylor, S Ahmad, M Zambon, NM Ferguson, A Lalvani; ATACCC Study Investigators. Community transmission and viral load kinetics of the SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) variant in vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals in the UK: a prospective, longitudinal, cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2021; S1473-3099(21)00648-4 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00648-4
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34
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35
T Patalon, S Gazit, VE Pitzer, O Prunas, JL Warren, DM Weinberger. Short term reduction in the odds of testing positive for sARS-CoV-2; a comparison between two doses and three doses of the BNT162b2 vaccine. medRxiv 2021; 2021.08.29.21262792 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.08.29.21262792
36
RL Atmar, KE Lyke, ME Deming, LA Jackson, AR Branche, HM El Sahly, CA Rostad, JM Martin, C Johnston, RE Rupp, MJ Mulligan, RC Brady, RW Frenck, M Bäcker, AC Kottkamp, TM Babu, K Rajakumar, S Edupuganti, D Dobryzynski, CM Posavad, JI Archer, S Crandon, SU Nayak, D Szydlo, J Zemanek, CPD Islas, ER Brown, MS Suthar, MJ McElrath, AB McDermott, SE O'Connell, DC Montefiori, A Eaton, KM Neuzil, DS Stephens, PC Roberts, JH Beigel; DMID 21-0012 Study Group. Heterologous SARS-CoV-2 booster vaccinations—preliminary report. medRxiv 2021; 2021.10.10.21264827 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.10.10.21264827
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37
H Pan, Q Wu, G Zeng, J Yang, D Jiang, X Deng, K Chu, W Zheng, F Zhu, H Yu, W Yin. Immunogenicity and safety of a third dose, and immune persistence of CoronaVac vaccine in healthy adults aged 18–59 years: interim results from a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 2 clinical trial. medRxiv 2021; 2021.07.23.21261026 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.07.23.21261026
38
M Li, J Yang, L Wang, Q Wu, Z Wu, W Zheng, L Wang, W Lu, X Deng, C Peng, B Han, Y Zhao, H Yu, W Yin. A booster dose is immunogenic and will be needed for older adults who have completed two doses vaccination with CoronaVac: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1/2 clinical trial. medRxiv 2021; 2021.08.03.21261544 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.08.03.21261544
39
CKP Mok, SMS Cheng, C Chen, K Yiu, TO Chan, KC Lai, KC Ling, YX Sun, LL Ho, M Peiris, DS Hui. A RCT of a third dose CoronaVac or BNT162b2 vaccine in adults with two doses of CoronaVac. medRxiv 2021; 2021.11.02.21265843 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.11.02.21265843
40
Y Cao, X Hao, X Wang, Q Wu, R Song, D Zhao, W Song, Y Wang, A Yisimayi, W Wang, W Zhang, J Du, H Yu, XS Xie, R Jin. Humoral immunogenicity and reactogenicity of CoronaVac or ZF2001 booster after two doses of inactivated vaccine. Cell Res 2021; [Epub ahead of print] doi: 10.1038/s41422-021-00596-5 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-021-00596-5
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41
J Ai, H Zhang, Q Zhang, Y Zhang, K Lin, Z Fu, J Song, Y Zhao, M Fan, H Wang, C Qiu, Y Zhou, W Zhang. Recombinant protein subunit vaccine booster following two-dose inactivated vaccines dramatically enhanced anti-RBD responses and neutralizing titers against SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern. Cell Res 2021; [Epub ahead of print] doi: 10.1038/s41422-021-00590-x https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-021-00590-x
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42
S Wu, J Huang, Z Zhang, J Wu, J Zhang, H Hu, T Zhu, J Zhang, L Luo, P Fan, B Wang, C Chen, Y Chen, X Song, Y Wang, W Si, T Sun, X Wang, L Hou, W Chen. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of an aerosolised adenovirus type-5 vector-based COVID-19 vaccine (Ad5-nCoV) in adults: preliminary report of an open-label and randomised phase 1 clinical trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2021; 21(12): 1654–1664 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00396-0
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43
N Kamar, F Abravanel, O Marion, C Couat, J Izopet, A Del Bello. Three doses of an mRNA Covid-19 vaccine in solid-organ transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2021; 385(7): 661–662 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2108861
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44
VG Hall, VH Ferreira, T Ku, M Ierullo, B Majchrzak-Kita, C Chaparro, N Selzner, J Schiff, M McDonald, G Tomlinson, V Kulasingam, D Kumar, A Humar. Randomized trial of a third dose of mRNA-1273 vaccine in transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2021; 385(13): 1244–1246 https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2111462
pmid: 34379917
45
DS Khoury, D Cromer, A Reynaldi, TE Schlub, AK Wheatley, JA Juno, K Subbarao, SJ Kent, JA Triccas, MP Davenport. Neutralizing antibody levels are highly predictive of immune protection from symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat Med 2021; 27(7): 1205–1211 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01377-8
pmid: 34002089
46
K Muhsen, W Na’aminh, Y Lapidot, S Goren, Y Amir, S Perlman, MS Green, G Chodick, D Cohen. A nationwide analysis of population group differences in the COVID-19 epidemic in Israel, February 2020−February 2021. Lancet Reg Health Eur 2021; 7: 100130 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100130
pmid: 34109321
47
Y Goldberg, M Mandel, YM Bar-On, O Bodenheimer, L Freedman, EJ Haas, R Milo, S Alroy-Preis, N Ash, A Huppert. Waning immunity of the BNT162b2 vaccine: a nationwide study from Israel. medrxiv 2021; 2021.08.24.21262423 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.08.24.21262423
