Many processes may be used for manufacturing functionally graded materials. Among them, additive manufacturing seems to be predestined due to near-net shape manufacturing of complex geometries combined with the possibility of applying different materials in one component. By adjusting the powder composition of the starting material layer by layer, a macroscopic and step-like gradient can be achieved. To further improve the step-like gradient, an enhancement of the in-situ mixing degree, which is limited according to the state of the art, is necessary. In this paper, a novel technique for an enhancement of the in-situ material mixing degree in the melt pool by applying laser remelting (LR) is described. The effect of layer-wise LR on the formation of the interface was investigated using pure copper and low-alloy steel in a laser powder bed fusion process. Subsequent cross-sectional selective electron microscopic analyses were carried out. By applying LR, the mixing degree was enhanced, and the reaction zone thickness between the materials was increased. Moreover, an additional copper and iron-based phase was formed in the interface, resulting in a smoother gradient of the chemical composition than the case without LR. The Marangoni convection flow and thermal diffusion are the driving forces for the observed effect.
. [J]. Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering, 2023, 18(4): 49.
Alexander SCHMIDT, Felix JENSCH, Sebastian HÄRTEL. Multi-material additive manufacturing—functionally graded materials by means of laser remelting during laser powder bed fusion. Front. Mech. Eng., 2023, 18(4): 49.
Regarding AM process optimized parameter set: reference for V2 and V3
V2
800
1000
Applied, LR parameter same as AM
Influence of LR on V1 regarding mixing degree
V3
1000
1000
Not applied
Influence of higher energy density on V1 regarding mixing degree and reference for V4
V4
1000
1000
Applied, LR parameter same as AM
Influence of LR on V3 regarding mixing degree
Tab.2
Fig.2
Fig.3
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig.8
AM
Additive manufacturing
EDX
Energy dispersive X-ray
FGM
Functionally graded material
L-DED
Laser-directed energy deposition
L-PBF
Laser powder bed fusion
LR
Laser remelting
MMAM
Multi-material additive manufacturing
PBF
Powder bed fusion
SEM
Scanning electron microscopic
1
B Kieback, A Neubrand, H Riedel. Processing techniques for functionally graded materials. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 2003, 362(1–2): 81–106 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(03)00578-1
2
W Tillmann, N F Lopes Dias, D Stangier. Influence of plasma nitriding pretreatments on the tribo-mechanical properties of DLC coatings sputtered on AISI H11. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2019, 357: 1027–1036 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2018.11.002
3
K Maile, K Berreth, A Lyutovich. Functionally graded coatings of carbon reinforced carbon by physical and chemical vapour deposition (PVD and CVD). Materials Science Forum, 2005, 492–493: 347–352 https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.492-493.347
4
M Sam, R Jojith, N Radhika. Progression in manufacturing of functionally graded materials and impact of thermal treatment—a critical review. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2021, 68: 1339–1377 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.06.062
5
J J Sobczak, L Drenchev. Metallic functionally graded materials: a specific class of advanced composites. Journal of Materials Science and Technology, 2013, 29(4): 297–316 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2013.02.006
6
S Tammas-Williams, I Todd. Design for additive manufacturing with site-specific properties in metals and alloys. Scripta Materialia, 2017, 135: 105–110 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.10.030
7
A Reichardt, A A Shapiro, R Otis, R P Dillon, J P Borgonia, B W McEnerney, P Hosemann, A M Beese. Advances in additive manufacturing of metal-based functionally graded materials. International Materials Reviews, 2021, 66(1): 1–29 https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2019.1709354
8
H Knoll, S Ocylok, A Weisheit, H Springer, E Jägle, D Raabe. Combinatorial alloy design by laser additive manufacturing. Steel Research International, 2017, 88(8): 1600416 https://doi.org/10.1002/srin.201600416
9
W Li, S Karnati, C Kriewall, F Liou, J Newkirk, K M Brown Taminger, W J Seufzer. Fabrication and characterization of a functionally graded material from Ti−6Al−4V to SS316 by laser metal deposition. Additive Manufacturing, 2017, 14: 95–104 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2016.12.006
10
M S Domack, J M Baughman. Development of nickel−titanium graded composition components. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 2005, 11(1): 41–51 https://doi.org/10.1108/13552540510573383
11
S Ocylok, A Weisheit, I Kelbassa. Functionally graded multi-layers by laser cladding for increased wear and corrosion protection. Physics Procedia, 2010, 5: 359–367 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2010.08.157
M G Scaramuccia, A G Demir, L Caprio, O Tassa, B Previtali. Development of processing strategies for multigraded selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V and IN718. Powder Technology, 2020, 367: 376–389 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2020.04.010
14
C F Tey, X P Tan, S L Sing, W Y Yeong. Additive manufacturing of multiple materials by selective laser melting: Ti-alloy to stainless steel via a Cu-alloy interlayer. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 31: 100970 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100970
15
C Wei, Z Sun, Q Chen, Z Liu, L Li. Additive manufacturing of horizontal and 3D functionally graded 316L/Cu10Sn components via multiple material selective laser melting. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 2019, 141(8): 081014 https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4043983
16
T Niendorf, S Leuders, A Riemer, F Brenne, T Tröster, H A Richard, D Schwarze. Functionally graded alloys obtained by additive manufacturing. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2014, 16(7): 857–861 https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201300579
17
V K Nadimpali, T Dahmen, E H Valente, S Mohanty, D B Pedersen. Multi-material additive manufacturing of steels using laser powder bed fusion. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Conference & Exhibition. Bilbao: DTU Library, 2019, 240–243
18
C Wei, Z Z Zhang, D X Cheng, Z Sun, M H Zhu, L Li. An overview of laser-based multiple metallic material additive manufacturing: from macro- to micro-scales. International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing, 2021, 3(1): 012003 https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-7990/abce04
19
K Yang, J Q Li, Q Y Wang, Z Y Li, Y F Jiang, Y F Bao. Effect of laser remelting on microstructure and wear resistance of plasma sprayed Al2O3−40%TiO2 coatings. Wear, 2019, 426–427: 314–318 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.01.100
20
C Cui, F X Ye, G R Song. Laser surface remelting of Fe-based alloy coatings deposited by HVOF. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2012, 206(8–9): 2388–2395 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.10.038
21
Y L Li, P Song, W Q Wang, M Lei, X W Li. Microstructure and wear resistance of a Ni−WC composite coating on titanium grade 2 obtained by electroplating and electron beam remelting. Materials Characterization, 2020, 170: 110674 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2020.110674
22
M S F Lima, F Folio, S Mischler. Microstructure and surface properties of laser-remelted titanium nitride coatings on titanium. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2005, 199(1): 83–91 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2004.08.206
23
N Serres, F Hlawka, S Costil, C Langlade, F Machi. Microstructure and environmental assessment of metallic NiCrBSi coatings manufactured via hybrid plasma spray process. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2010, 205(4): 1039–1046 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.03.048
24
R F Li, Y J Jin, Z G Li, Y Y Zhu, M F Wu. Effect of the remelting scanning speed on the amorphous forming ability of Ni-based alloy using laser cladding plus a laser remelting process. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2014, 259: 725–731 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.09.067
25
B Xin, X X Zhou, G Cheng, J Yao, Y D Gong. Microstructure and mechanical properties of thin-wall structure by hybrid laser metal deposition and laser remelting process. Optics & Laser Technology, 2020, 127: 106087 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106087
26
B Li, L Zhang, B Yang. Grain refinement and localized amorphization of additively manufactured high-entropy alloy matrix composites reinforced by nano ceramic particles via selective-laser-melting/remelting. Composites Communications, 2020, 19: 56–60 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2020.03.001
27
J Song, Q Tang, Q X Feng, Q Q Han, S Ma, H Chen, F Y Guo, R Setchi. Effect of remelting processes on the microstructure and mechanical behaviours of 18Ni-300 maraging steel manufactured by selective laser melting. Materials Characterization, 2022, 184: 111648 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2021.111648
28
H Okamoto, M E Schlesinger, E M Müller. ASM Handbook: Alloy Phase Diagrams. ASM International, 1992
29
S A Khairallah, A T Anderson, A Rubenchik, W E King. Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones. Acta Materialia, 2016, 108: 36–45 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.014
30
Z Sun, Y H Chueh, L Li. Multiphase mesoscopic simulation of multiple and functionally gradient materials laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes. Additive Manufacturing, 2020, 35: 101448 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101448
31
C Y Chen, D D Gu, D H Dai, L Du, R Wang, C L Ma, M J Xia. Laser additive manufacturing of layered TiB2/Ti6Al4V multi-material parts: understanding thermal behavior evolution. Optics & Laser Technology, 2019, 119: 105666 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.105666
