1. Institute for Advanced Materials and Technology (IAMT), State Key Laboratory for Advanced Metals and Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China 2. Shunde Graduate School, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Foshan 528399, China 3. School of Computer and Communication Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China 4. Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Materials Genome Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China 5. School of Engineering, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK 6. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China
Chemical vapor deposited (CVD) diamond as a burgeoning multi-functional material with tailored quality and characteristics can be artificially synthesized and controlled for various applications. Correspondingly, the application-related “grade” concept associated with materials choice and design was gradually formulated, of which the availability and the performance are optimally suited. In this review, the explicit diversity of CVD diamond and the clarification of typical grades for applications, i.e., from resplendent gem-grade to promising quantum-grade, were systematically summarized and discussed, according to the crystal quality and main consideration of ubiquitous nitrogen impurity content as well as major applications. Realizations of those, from quantum-grade with near-ideal crystal to electronic-grade having extremely low imperfections and then to optical, thermal as well as mechanical-grade needing controlled flaws and allowable impurities, would competently fulfill the multi-field application prospects with appropriate choice in terms of cost and quality. Exceptionally, wide range defects and impurities in the gem-grade diamond (only indicating single crystal), which are detrimental for technology applications, endows CVD crystals with fancy colors to challenge their natural counterparts.
H3 absorption (2NV0) + 550 nm; band (unknown); 480 nm band (unknown); isolated nitrogen “C centers” (N)
Tab.2
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
Diamond color
Nitrogen concentration/ppm
Hardness/GPa
Abrasion resistance
Yellow
70
95
0.84
20
106
1.31
Pale green
~2
–
1.72
~0.1
131
3.11
Colorless
~0.3
110
3.05
Tab.3
Fig.7
Fig.8
Fig.9
Materials grade
Nitrogen concentration/ppm
Dislocation density/cm–2
Grain size/μm
C-vacancy concentration/ppm
1800 W·m–1·K–1 (600 μm)
2.0–5.0
108
100–140
20–30
1800 W·m–1·K–1 (250 μm)
2.0–5.0
108
30–70
20–30
1500 W·m–1·K–1 (250 μm)
12–17
108
30–70
20
1000 W·m–1·K–1 (250 μm)
0.1–0.3
1011
20–30
22–24
Optical
0.1–0.4
108
120–160
9–13
Tab.4
Fig.10
Fig.11
Fig.12
Element
Ea/eV a)
Conduction type
Comment
Refs.
B
0.36–0.37
p
Insulative to metallic to superconductive
[188–190]
H on surface
0.05
Unstable
[191–192]
O
0.32
n
Need cold-implantation-rapid-annealing
[193]
P
0.57–0.6
Deep donor, limited to the (1?1?1)-oriented diamond lattice structure
[194–195]
N
1.7
Deep donor
[189,196]
S (S-complex)
0.38 (0.1)
S++ c) state cannot act as a donor due to no extra level introduced in the band gap; quite low doping efficiency and solubility (activation energy unstable)
[197–198]
Deuterated B
0.23
–
[199]
Li
0.1 and 0.4 (~0.2) b)
Insoluble, unstable, and likely to form complexes with impurities and vacancies
[200–201]
Na
0.3 (0.13–0.42) b)
[200,202]
Sn, Te, As, Sb
~0.4–0.5
Unstable, and likely to be compensated by other defects or atom size is large
[203]
Tab.5
Fig.13
Fig.14
Fig.15
Fig.16
Fig.17
Fig.18
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