Fire hazard in transportation infrastructure: Review, assessment, and mitigation strategies
Venkatesh KODUR1(), M. Z. NASER2
1. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1226, USA 2. Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
This paper reviews the fire problem in critical transportation infrastructures such as bridges and tunnels. The magnitude of the fire problem is illustrated, and the recent increase in fire problems in bridges and tunnels is highlighted. Recent research undertaken to address fire problems in transportation structures is reviewed, as well as critical factors governing the performance of those structures. Furthermore, key strategies recommended for mitigating fire hazards in bridges and tunnels are presented, and their applicability to practical situations is demonstrated through a practical case study. Furthermore, research needs and emerging trends for enhancing the “state-of-the-art” in this area are discussed.
. [J]. Frontiers of Structural and Civil Engineering, 2021, 15(1): 46-60.
Venkatesh KODUR, M. Z. NASER. Fire hazard in transportation infrastructure: Review, assessment, and mitigation strategies. Front. Struct. Civ. Eng., 2021, 15(1): 46-60.
vandalism led to burning of large Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes stored under the bridge
concrete bridge
one span collapsed after 30 min of fire break out
I-375 bridge, MI, USA [19]
May 24, 2015
gasoline tanker carrying 9000 gallons crashed
composite bridge
concrete deck was significantly damaged by fire
I-15 at Cajon, CA, USA [20]
May 5, 2014
construction Workers cutting rebar with blowtorches spread the fire into the “falsework” of the bridge
composite bridge
collapse
Bridge over freeway 60, Los Angeles, CA, USA [21]
December 14, 2011
a tanker carrying 33814 gallons of gasoline caught fire
precast prestressed I girders and cast in place reinforced concrete slab
concrete girders were significantly damaged and bridge was demolished and replaced
Zhuoshui Fengyu Bridge, China [22]
November 29, 2013
unknown
wood girders on top of brick piers
bridge collapsed after burning of wooden superstructure.
I-75 Bridge, MI, USA [1]
July 15, 2009
gasoline tanker collision
composite bridge
collapse
Big Four Bridge, KY, USA [1]
May 7, 2008
electrical problem of the lighting system
steel truss bridge
minor structural damage resulting in large amount of debris on the bridge
Bill Williams River Bridge, AZ, USA [23]
June 20, 2007
gasoline tanker over-turned
precast prestressed I girders and cast in place reinforced concrete slab
concrete girders were severely damaged
Rio–Antirrio bridge, Greece [24]
January 25, 2005
lightning strike caused one of the cable links snapped
cable stay composite bridge
cable failed after 40 min into fire
Wiehltalbrücke Bridge, Germany [1]
August 26, 2004
collision of fuel tanker transporting 33000 litters of fuel
steel bridge
major damages that costed €7.2 million
I-95 CT, USA [25]
March 26, 2003
a car struck a truck carrying 8000 gallons of heating oil near the bridge
composite bridge
collapse
Tab.1
location
date
cause
material type used in structural members
damage
Weihai city tunnel, China [26]
May 9, 2017
bus collision
concrete lining
12 deaths (11 children)
Hachihonmatsu tunnel, Japan [27]
March 17, 2016
a truck crashed into several vehicles stopped in a pile up, fire burned for three hours
concrete lining
2 deaths and 70 injuries
Sangju tunnel, South Korea [28]
October 26, 2015
truck carrying flammable paint thinner exploded after crashing into tunnel siding
concrete tiles
21 injuries
Shanxi tunnel, China [29]
March 1, 2014
two methanol tanker trucks collided
NA
31 deaths and major damages to tunnel (which did not have any ventilation facilities)
Gudvanga tunnel, Norway [28]
August 5, 2013
HGV on fire due to engine break down duration
concrete lining
67 severe injuries
Melbourne Burnley road tunnel, Australia [30]
March 23, 2007
collision of truck and car
concrete lining
3 deaths and minor structural damage
Howard Street tunnel, Mary-land, USA [31]
July 18, 2001
derailment of the train car
concrete lining
losses estimated at $12 million
Tauern road tunnel, Austria [32]
May 29, 1999
collision of cars and HGVs and lasted to 53 h
concrete lining
losses estimated $32 million (and 12 deaths)
Channel rail tunnel, France-UK [33]
November 18, 1996
HGV caught fire and fire burned for 10 h
concrete lining
$278 million in losses
Summit Tunnel fire, UK [34]
December 20, 1984
train carrying more than 260000 gallons of gasoline derailed, the fire lasted 3 days
brick lining
tunnel was shut down for nine months for repairs
Salang Tunnel fire, Afghanistan [33]
November, 3 1982
two military convoys of Soviet Army collided causing a traffic jam
concrete lining
176 deaths
Caldecott tunnel, California, USA [34,35]
April 7, 1982
collision between gasoline tanker, car and bus, fire lasted for 2 h
concrete lining
losses estimated $3 million (and 7 deaths)
Holland Tunnel fire, NY, USA [36]
May 13, 1949
truck carrying 4400 gallons of carbon disulfide malfunctioned
tiles
66 people were injured, tunnel walls spalled and concrete ceiling collapsed
Tab.2
Fig.1
scenario
building
bridge
tunnel
fuel source
wood/plastics
hydrocarbona) flammables
hydrocarbon a) based
ventilation
restricted supply of oxygen
unlimited supply of oxygen
unlimited supply of oxygen b)
fire severity
ISO 834/Natural fires
hdrocarbon fire/ ASTM E1529/pool fires
hydrocarbon fire/ ASTM E1529
enclosure
compartmentation
open
large space
fire protection features
active and passive systems
–
some features (such as smoke control systems) c)
structural members
failure limit state
mainly flexural
flexural/shear
lining materials
typical connections
web and/or the flange
bearing of the bottom flange
–
typical sectional slenderness
web slenderness [50]
web slenderness (150 with no stiffeners)
–
loading
dead load+ % of live load
dead load+ (very little live load)
dead load
exposure conditions
interior environment
outdoor environment (i.e., high humidity/moisture content etc.)
outdoor environment (i.e., high humidity/moisture content etc.)
Tab.3
Fig.2
Fig.3
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.6
case
girder condition
insulation thickness (mm)
risk grade (importance factor)
failure time (min)
I-65 Birmingham Bridge
bare girder
–
high (1.2)
9
insulated girder
16
medium (1.0)
76
insulated girder
30
medium (1.0)
125
Tab.4
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