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Frontiers of Chemical Science and Engineering

ISSN 2095-0179

ISSN 2095-0187(Online)

CN 11-5981/TQ

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2018 Impact Factor: 2.809

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Front. Chem. Sci. Eng.    2019, Vol. 13 Issue (1) : 46-58    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11705-018-1723-x
REVIEW ARTICLE
Sodium cellulose sulfate: A promising biomaterial used for microcarriers’ designing
Qing-Xi Wu1,2, Yi-Xin Guan1, Shan-Jing Yao1()
1. Key Laboratory of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
2. School of Life Sciences, Anhui University; Anhui Key Laboratory of Modern Biomanufacturing; Key Laboratory of Eco-engineering and Biotechnology of Anhui Province, Hefei 230601, China
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Abstract

Due to a worldwide focus on sustainable materials for human health and economy services, more and more natural renewable biomass are regarded as promising materials that could replace synthetic polymers and reduce global dependence on petroleum resources. Cellulose is known as the most abundant renewable polymer in nature, varieties of cellulose-based products have been developed and have gained growing interest in recent years. In this review, a kind of water-soluble cellulose derivative, i.e., sodium cellulose sulfate (NaCS) is introduced. Details about NaCS’s physicochemical properties like solubility, biocompatibility, biodegradability, degree of substitution, etc. are systematically elaborated. And promising applications of NaCS used as biomaterials for microcarriers’ designing, such as micro-cell-carriers, micro-drug-carriers, etc., are presented.
Keywords sodium cellulose sulfate      biomaterial      physicochemical properties      microcarriers     
Corresponding Author(s): Shan-Jing Yao   
Just Accepted Date: 15 March 2018   Online First Date: 22 May 2018    Issue Date: 25 February 2019
 Cite this article:   
Qing-Xi Wu,Yi-Xin Guan,Shan-Jing Yao. Sodium cellulose sulfate: A promising biomaterial used for microcarriers’ designing[J]. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng., 2019, 13(1): 46-58.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fcse/EN/10.1007/s11705-018-1723-x
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fcse/EN/Y2019/V13/I1/46
Fig.1  Preparation of NaCS using refined cotton or cotton linter as raw materials by heterogeneous reaction
Sulfate reagents Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
DMF and SO3 Substitution uniformly;
little molecular weight reduction; no using of anhydrous sulfuric acid 		Difficulty in handling of SO3; reaction violently [15]
DMF and N2O4 Preparation and handling easily;
substitution uniformly; using less sulfuric acid; no acetylation of cellulose; preferably reaction at room temperature		 Toxicity of N2O4; high production cost [16]
Chlorosulfuric acid and pyridine Substitution uniformly; a high degree of substitution; no significant degradation Highly toxicity of chlorosulfuric acid; serious environmental pollution [17]
Tab.1  Advantages and disadvantages of different homogeneous strategies
Fig.2  Promising applications of NaCS in different fields
Measurement methods Principle Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
Polyelectrolytes titration Reacting and forming particles that having a UV absorption peak at 290 nm, using spectrophotometer to judge the end of titration A simple and rapid method Difficult to judge the end of titration accurately [39]
Barium sulfate turbidimetrya) Hydrolyze NaCS with 1 mol·L−1 HCl to release SO3− groups, adding BaCl2 to form BaSO4 precipitate, drawing the standard curve with K2SO4 and BaCl2 at 360 nm A rapid and convenient method Existing some experimental errors due to the turbid liquid of BaSO4 particles distributed non-uniformly with time [53]
Element analysisb) Contents of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur can be determined via Elemental Analyser Precise, reducing the manual measurement errors High cost relatively [18]
13C-NMR spectroscopy Based on 13C-NMR spectroscopy by means of NMR spectrometer Good accuracy and credibility High analysis cost [18]
FT Raman spectroscopy Record FT Raman spectra with a spectrometer via a liquid-nitrogen cooled Ge diode as detector A rapid method of quantifying the total DS of NaCS Need high-end equipments, high analysis costs and a certain level of operational technology [54]
Tab.2  DS measurement methods of NaCS and their advantages and disadvantages
Sample DS by elemental analysis DS by 13C-NMR
DStotal DSC2 DSC3 DSC6
Sul-10 1.04 1.13 0.38 0.75
Sul-11 0.31 0.32 − − 0.32
Sul-13 0.41 0.48 0.05 0.43
Sul-15 0.51 0.55 − − 0.55
Tab.3  Comparison of the DS values of NaCSs measured by elemental analysis and 13C-NMR spectroscopy methodsa)
Fig.3  Salts effects on the viscosity and formation of NaCS. (a) Viscosity of NaCS (0.05%, w/w) with different concentration of salts; (b) formation of NaCS in salt free solution; (c) formation of NaCS in salt solution. Modified and cited from Wang et al. [39]
Microcarriers /polymers Immobilized microbes Targeted product Level Ref.
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ethanol 47.0 g/L [43]
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Bacillus Subtilis ATE Max. activity of 2050 UK/mL [57]
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Monascus purpureus Red pigments 13.4 g/L at five batch [58]
SA/NaCS-CaCl2/PMCG microcapsules Bacillus subtilis Nattokinase Max. activity of 2465 IU/mL [59]
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Brevibacterium flavum Glutamic acid 15.29 g/(L?h) [60]
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Candida valida Lipase Max. 10 U/mL at 26 h [61]
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Klebsiella pneumonia; Candida krusei ICM-Y-05, Klebsiella pneumoniae ZJU 5205 1,3-propanediol Max. 63.1 g/L in batch culture [62–64]
NaCS/PDMDAAC microcapsules Mixed flora Hydrogen 1.73–1.81 mol H2/mol glucose [65]
Tab.4  NaCS providing as immobilized materials for “biomass” production in micro-cell-carriersa)
Fig.4  Growth and viability of CellMAC-encapsulated Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. CellMAC-encapsulated CHO cell derivatives were cultivated for 44 d and microscopically analyzed at indicated times. (a) Cell growth; (b) cell viability (fluorescein diacetate staining); (c) dead cells (ethidium bromide staining). Adapted with permission from Weber et al. [67]. Copyright (2004) Elsevier B. V. & Co
Fig.5  SEM and scanning probe microscope (SPM) images of the microcapsules. (a) SEM image of a hollow microcapsule (×6.00 k, 5.0 kV); (b) SPM image of the dried microcapsules (area 6 mm); (c) the line analysis of (b), showing the thickness of the double layers of capsules shell, in which two arrows in the sides of picture were boundary of microcapsules; the arrow in the middle showed the minimum thickness of microcapsule. Adapted with permission from Xie et al. [75]. Copyright (2009) American Chemical Society
Fig.6  LSCM micrographs of the CA/NaCS-WSC microcapsules. Adapted with permission from Wu et al. [77]. Copyright (2016) Elsevier B. V. & Co
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