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Front. Agr. Sci. Eng.    2020, Vol. 7 Issue (3) : 257-274    https://doi.org/10.15302/J-FASE-2020323
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Novel soil quality indicators for the evaluation of agricultural management practices: a biological perspective
Giulia BONGIORNO1,2()
1. Soil Biology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
2. Department of Soil Science, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Ackerstrasse 113, 5070 Frick, Switzerland
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Abstract

Developments in soil biology and in methods to characterize soil organic carbon can potentially deliver novel soil quality indicators that can help identify management practices able to sustain soil productivity and environmental resilience. This work aimed at synthesizing results regarding the suitability of a range of soil biological and biochemical properties as novel soil quality indicators for agricultural management. The soil properties, selected through a published literature review, comprised different labile organic carbon fractions [hydrophilic dissolved organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC), hot water extractable carbon and particulate organic matter carbon], soil disease suppressiveness measured using a Pythium-Lepidium bioassay, nematode communities characterized by amplicon sequencing and qPCR, and microbial community level physiological profiling measured with MicroRespTM. Prior studies tested the sensitivity of each of the novel indicators to tillage and organic matter addition in ten European long-term field experiments (LTEs) and assessed their relationships with pre-existing soil quality indicators of soil functioning. Here, the results of these previous studies are brought together and interpreted relative to each other and to the broader body of literature on soil quality assessment. Reduced tillage increased carbon availability, disease suppressiveness, nematode richness and diversity, the stability and maturity of the food web, and microbial activity and functional diversity. Organic matter addition played a weaker role in enhancing soil quality, possibly due to the range of composition of the organic matter inputs used in the LTEs. POXC was the indicator that discriminated best between soil management practices, followed by nematode indices based on functional characteristics. Structural equation modeling shows that POXC has a central role in nutrient retention/supply, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, erosion control and disease regulation/suppression. The novel indicators proposed here have great potential to improve existing soil quality assessment schemes. Their feasibility of application is discussed and needs for future research are outlined.
Keywords labile carbon      long-term field experiments      organic matter addition      soil biological indicators      tillage     
Corresponding Author(s): Giulia BONGIORNO   
Just Accepted Date: 19 March 2020   Online First Date: 06 May 2020    Issue Date: 28 July 2020
 Cite this article:   
Giulia BONGIORNO. Novel soil quality indicators for the evaluation of agricultural management practices: a biological perspective[J]. Front. Agr. Sci. Eng. , 2020, 7(3): 257-274.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/10.15302/J-FASE-2020323
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/Y2020/V7/I3/257
Fig.1  Linkages between novel soil quality indicators (in orange), processes and ecosystem services (ES). Adapted from Bünemann et al.[15].
Properties Methodology Units Analytical laboratory
Chemical properties
?Total organic carbon SIST ISO 10694: Soil quality - Determination of organic and total carbon after dry combustion (elementary analysis) % University of Ljubljana
Physical properties
?Water stable aggregates Wet sieving method modified as in Öhlinger &Kandeler[31] mg·kg−1 soil FiBL
Biological properties
?Microbial biomass carbon Fumigation-extraction method[32] mg·kg−1 soil University of Trier
?Soil respiration Incubation of soil at 25°C for 72 h in thermostatic bath mg·h−1·g −1 soil University Miguel Hernandez
?Yield Harvesting total biomass and product in 2016 Mg·ha−1 dry matter Field assessment
Tab.1  Overview of methods used to determine chemical, physical, and biological soil quality indicators as measured in the framework of the European project “Interactive Soil Quality Assessment in Europe and China for agricultural Productivity and Environmental Resilience” (iSQAPER) and used for the current study. Adapted from Bongiorno et al.[28]
Fig.2  Importance of novel soil quality indicators in discriminating between different soil management practices (i.e., CT-Low OM, CT-High OM, RT-Low OM and RT-High OM), expressed as variable importance metric (mean percentage decrease in accuracy) from random forest classification analysis. CT, conventional tillage; RT, reduced tillage; OM, organic matter; POXC, permanganate oxidizable carbon; HWEC, hot water oxidizable carbon; POMC, particulate organic matter carbon; DOC, dissolved organic carbon; SI, structure index; Hy-DOC, hydrophilic dissolved organic carbon; EI, enrichment index; MSIR multiple substrate induced respiration; MI, maturity index; OTU, operational taxonomic unit; and CLPP, community level physiological profiling.
Fig.3  Influence of soil texture on the novel soil quality indicators, expressed by redundancy analysis (RDA), of novel soil quality indicators assessed in samples with (a) heavy soil texture (clay+ fine silt >50%; n = 42) and (b) light soil texture (clay+ fine silt <50%; n = 59). The soil quality indicators that had a significant correlation at p≤0.001 with either RDA axis are reported in red with their vectors. CT-Low, conventional tillage and low organic matter input; CT-High, conventional tillage and high organic matter input; RT-Low, reduced tillage and low organic matter input; RT-High, reduced tillage and high organic matter input; OTU, operational taxonomic unit; POMC, particulate organic matter carbon; HWEC, hot water extractable carbon; POXC, permanganate oxidizable carbon; Hy-DOC, hydrophilic dissolved organic carbon; DOC, dissolved organic carbon; MI, nematode maturity index; and EI, nematode enrichment index.
Indicators Heavy soils
(clay+ fine silt >50%)		 Light soils
(clay+ fine silt <50%)
RDA1 RDA2 RDA1 RDA2
Score r p Score r p Score r p Score r p
POXC 0.60 0.61 *** 0.03 0.03 0.55 0.43 ** -0.10 -0.08
HWEC 0.49 0.51 ** 0.03 -0.02? 0.34 0.27 * -0.02 ?0.01
Hy-DOC 0.54 0.61 *** -0.18? -0.11? 0.44 0.39 * -0.17 -0.21
DOC 0.37 0.44 * -0.01? -0.02? 0.51 0.43 ** -0.11 -0.01
POMC 0.53 0.55 ** 0.05 -0.02? 0.42 0.33 * ?0.05 -0.09
Soil suppressiveness 0.12 0.25 0.08 0.02 0.02 ?0.006 ?0.18 ?0.03
Nematode OTU diversity -0.02? -0.007 0.27 0.68 *** 0.23 0.37 * ?0.25 ?0.57 ***
Nematode OTU richness 0.17 0.22 0.11 0.39 * 0.60 0.58 *** ?0.04 ?0.26 *
Nematode abundance 0.49 0.62 *** -0.02? -0.38? * 0.18 0.15 -0.13 -0.33 *
MI 0.03 -0.05? 0.24 0.55 ** 0.13 0.26 * ?0.45 ?0.76 ***
SI 0.04 ?0.002 0.12 0.36 * 0.12 0.16 ?0.33 ?0.39 *
EI -0.12? -0.10? -0.14? -0.35? * 0.09 0.17 -0.41 -0.54 ***
MSIR 0.43 0.40 * 0.10 0.02 0.20 0.14 ??0.009 ?0.01
CLPP Shannon index 0.28 0.49 ** -0.15? -0.38? * 0.21 0.24 ?0.06 ?0.08 ?
Tab.2  RDA scores, Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and related p-values of the novel soil quality indicators on the first two RDA axes for heavy textured and light textured soils
Fig.4  Structural equation model (SEM) showing the central role of POXC as a predictor of various ecosystem services, which are placed in colored boxes outside the SEM frame. White boxes within the SEM frame represent measured variables and arrows represent the unidirectional relationship between the properties. The color of the border of the boxes specifies the ecosystem service they indicate. White and black arrows indicate positive and negative relationships, respectively. Numbers on the side of the arrows indicate standardized effect size whose strength is proportional to the width of the arrow. Numbers close to the boxes of the response variables are Rm2 (marginal coefficient of determination) and Rc2 (conditional coefficient of determination). Akaike information criterion (AIC), corrected Akaike information criterion (AICC), Fisher chi-square (Fisher c2), p-value (P) of the test, degrees of freedom (df), and the number of observations (N) are indicated. POXC, permanganate oxidizable carbon; C stock, carbon stock; and OTU, operational taxonomic unit. Op≤0.1, *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01 and ***p≤0.001.
Novel indicator Advantages Disadvantages
Labile carbon fractions Sensitive
Multifunctional indicators
Unified protocols are available		 Individual laboratory protocols vary, hampering general ?standardization and comparability
Pre-treatment conditions (sieving and storing) affect all the? fractions; also quantity of soil and soil organic carbon ?affects POXC determination
Not clear which part of the total carbon is quantified, ?complicating the interpretation of the results (POXC ?might not quantify only the labile part of TOC)
Soil suppressiveness Highly reproducible, fast and easy assay
Close to in situ conditions
Sensitive		 Other factors, not quantified in our study, affect soil?suppressiveness
Assessment of potential, which does not take into account ?the specificity of a particular host-pathogen interaction ?in the field
Bioassays with different pathogen can give different results
Bioassay should be combined with in situ characterization ?of disease severity and/or with a bioassay using the crop ?and the pathogen that are present in the area and cause ?disease
Free-living soil nematode ?communities Sensitive
Molecular techniques gave results in accordance to more ?established microscopic techniques. Data obtained ?with molecular methods can be interpreted using ?knowledge on nematode community composition ?(i.e., trophic and life strategy groups)
Molecular characterization will become ever faster, ?cheaper and with higher throughput than ?morphological identification
Information on taxonomic as well as functional and ?ecological aspects based on food preferences and ?life-history is available		 Variable efficiency of the extraction of nematodes and DNA ?from soil, and high variability in the methodology ?between laboratories
Optimization and standardization of the method is needed: ?primer selection, database completeness and bioinformatic ?analysis workflow
Number of copies of targeted genes varies with species ?and life stage, complicating the assessment of relative ?abundances, and standardization of the sequencing ?results
Assessment of relic DNA
Microbial catabolic profile ?(MicroRespTM) Easy and practical functional characterization of the soil ?microbial community which combines functional ?diversity and degradation rates
Sensitive		 The method selects only species adapted to rapid growth ?on simple substrates
The choice of the substrates is critical and the current set ?of substrates has low discriminating capacity
The same amount of carbon source is added to the soil, ?not the same amount of carbon
Final values are highly dependent on a laboratory-specific ?calibration line, making comparison between laboratory ?results problematic
Tab.3  Advantages and disadvantages of the novel soil quality indicators
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[1] Hongwen LI,Jin HE,Huanwen GAO,Ying CHEN,Zhiqiang ZHANG. The effect of conservation tillage on crop yield in China[J]. Front. Agr. Sci. Eng. , 2015, 2(2): 179-185.
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