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Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering

ISSN 2095-2201

ISSN 2095-221X(Online)

CN 10-1013/X

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Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.    2015, Vol. 9 Issue (3) : 371-384    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-014-0744-z
REVIEW ARTICLE
Review of challenges and strategies for balanced urban–rural environmental protection in China
Beidou XI1, Xiaoguang LI1,2(), Jixi GAO3, Ying ZHAO1, Hongliang LIU1, Xunfeng XIA1, Tianxue YANG1, Lieyu ZHANG1, Xuan JIA1
1. State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
2. School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
3. Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences of State Environmental Protection Administration, Nanjing 210042, China
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Abstract

With the rise of environmentalism in China, great efforts have been devoted to environmental protection over the past several decades. Compared with urban environmental protection, rural environmental protection has not been attached enough importance in China due to the dual-track structure of socio-economic development. As a result, rural China is shouldering disproportionally heavy environmental burdens partly because of the differences and biases between urban and rural environmental protection seen in environmental policies, environmental rights and interests, environmental protection investment, and the environmental protection awareness of people. To eliminate the gap between rural and urban environmental protection, and achieve the goal of “balanced urban–rural environmental protection” (BUREP), government should consider mapping out proper policies and strategies. In this paper we put forward an innovative strategy of BUREP against the background of China’s urban-rural environmental protection. First, we review the current status of rural environmental protection status and its challenges compared with urban environmental protection in China. Secondly, we analyzed the main driving factors and reasons deeply, and then we put forward the BUREP strategy base on the unequal status between urban and rural environment. Finally, we proposed the framework of BUREP. This study may serve as a scientific reference regarding decision-making in coordinating urban and rural environmental protection and in constructing the new countryside of China.
Keywords urban environment      rural environment      balanced urban–rural environmental protection      framework of balanced urban–rural environmental protection (BUREP)     
Corresponding Author(s): Xiaoguang LI   
Online First Date: 09 July 2014    Issue Date: 30 April 2015
 Cite this article:   
Beidou XI,Xiaoguang LI,Jixi GAO, et al. Review of challenges and strategies for balanced urban–rural environmental protection in China[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2015, 9(3): 371-384.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-014-0744-z
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2015/V9/I3/371
village types water consumption/(L?d–1)
good economic conditions and well-appointed indoor sanitation facilities 120–150
relatively good economic conditions and more complete indoor health facilities 90–120
general economic conditions and simple indoor sanitation facilities 80–100
no toilet and shower; mainly using surface water and well water for washing 60–90
Tab.1  Emission characteristics of rural domestic sewagea)
districts pH SS CODCr BOD5 NH3–N oil phenol cationic surfactant TN TP
Jiangsu 5.55 93 1320 551 2.7 5.5 0.1 10.9 48.9 7.1
Ningxia 7.38 252 4427 1736 43.4 26.3 0.1 178.6 89.4 11.0
Xinjiang 6.51 844 3920 1660 27.0 366 0.2 5.7 58.7 5.6
Shanxi 6.1 84 2450 -- 25.2 -- -- -- -- --
Hubei 5.24 327 351 480 25.2 234.0 0.5 45.3 74.6 12.1
Tab.2  Rural domestic sewage quality indicators in typical rural areasa) unit: mg?L–1
urban rural
quantity large; fast rate of increase smaller; lower rate of increase
source centralized decentralized
composition (in)organic garbage (in)organic garbage
collection & transportation easy difficult
environmental awareness high low
impact factors population; economy; fuels; consumption structure; characteristics of city population; economy; fuels; population; livestock
treatment centralized little
Tab.3  Different characteristics of urban and rural solid waste
Fig.1  Relations between urban environment and rural environment
year decisions or plans
1992 ‘China’s Ten Strategic Policies on Environment and Development’ stated that China would adopt a sustainable development strategy
1994 1994 China’s Agenda 21(SDPC 1994)
1995 China sought to achieve two fundamental transformations: 1) from planning economy to socialist market economy; 2) from extensive to intensive economic growth mode
2002 the Sixteenth National Party Congress stated that: a major task for building a well-off society in an all-round way is to make overall planning for urban and rural economic and social development, build modern agriculture, develop the rural economy and increase the income of farmers
2003 the third session of the 16th CPC Central Committee: proposed the “five overall plans” concept and emphasized “overall planning the coordinated development of urban and rural areas”
2005 the Fifth Plenary Conference of 16th Central Committee of the CPC: brought forward the need for a “thriving economy, affluent life, civilized society, clean village, democratic management” for new countryside construction of socialism. (Note that a “clean village” is a precondition.)
2006 Plan for national environmental action in rural areas (Environmental Protection Agency) five important issues were proposed: 1) comprehensive improvement of the rural environment; 2) prevention and control of industrial pollution; 3) soil pollution and rural non-point pollution control; 4) ensure the security of the drinking water; 5) the large-scale improvement of farm pollution control
2007 the National Development and Reform Commission ratified Chengdu and Chongqing for the first comprehensive urban–rural balanced reform trials in China
2008 first national conference on rural environmental protection
2009 the Environmental Protection Agency, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission proposed the strategy that “encourage environmental pioneers using awards for innovation and exemplary performance” to help solve rural environmental problems
2010 the CCP central first document proposed: to increase emphasis on urban–rural coordinated economic and social development; to ensure that agriculture and rural development is firmly established; and to accelerate the process of agricultural modernization, promoting agricultural industrialization and urbanization of the country
2011 the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) pointed out and distributed the “12th Five-Year National Plan for Comprehensive Control of Rural Environment”
2013 the third Plenary Session of the 18th CPC Central Committee (2013) proposed that: China must set up a new type of industry-agriculture and urban-rural relations in which the industrial sector promotes agriculture, urban areas support rural development, agriculture and industry benefit each other, and urban and rural development is integrated.
2013 the National Conference on Environmental Protection pointed that Chinese government should enhance ecological conservation and rural environmental protection.
Tab.4  Key decisions or plans by China on creating balanced urban–rural environmental protection and development
indicator pollutant emission standard in Beijing WQSa for landscape and reuse WQSa) for irrigation
Grade I (A) Grade I (B) Grade II paddy fields dry land vegetable plot
CODCr 15 50 60 – 200 300 150
BOD5 5 15 20 10 80 150 80
SS 10 3 50 20 150 300 150
NH3–N 2 5 10 5 – – –
TP 0.1 0.5 0.5 1.0 5.0 10 10
Tab.5  Rural domestic sewage treatment discharge reference standards in Beijing unit: mg?L−1
subsidy project subsidy standard
dustbins 4000 CNY per year (population<1,000 in one village)
6000 CNY per year (population＞1,000 in one village)
close-ended waste transfer station 5000 CNY per year (embedded close-ended waste transfer station)
1000 CNY per year (above close-ended waste transfer station)
garbage truck 20000 CNY per year
cost of management 7 CNY per year
Tab.6  Subsidy use for rural domestic waste disposal in Huzhou
Fig.2  Balanced management system for BUREP
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