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Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering

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Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.    2022, Vol. 16 Issue (9) : 121    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-022-1553-4
REVIEW ARTICLE
Impacts of methanol fuel on vehicular emissions: A review
Chung Song Ho1,2, Jianfei Peng1, UnHyok Yun1,3, Qijun Zhang1(), Hongjun Mao1()
1. Tianjin Key Laboratory of Urban Transport Emission Research, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
2. High-Technology Development Institution, Kim II Sung University, Pyongyang 999093, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
3. Laboratory of Ship Research, Department of Ship & Marine Engineering, Kim Chaek University of Technology, Pyongyang 999093, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
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Abstract

● Methanol effectively reduces CO, HC, CO2, PM, and PN emissions of gasoline vehicles.

● Elemental composition of methanol directly affects the reduction of emissions.

● Several physicochemical properties of methanol help reduce vehicle emissions.

The transport sector is a significant energy consumer and a major contributor to urban air pollution. At present, the substitution of cleaner fuel is one feasible way to deal with the growing energy demand and environmental pollution. Methanol has been recognized as a good alternative to gasoline due to its good combustion performance. In the past decades, many studies have investigated exhaust emissions using methanol-gasoline blends. However, the conclusions derived from different studies vary significantly, and the explanations for the effects of methanol blending on exhaust emissions are also inconsistent. This review summarizes the characteristics of CO, HC, NOx, CO2, and particulate emissions from methanol-gasoline blended fuels and pure methanol fuel. CO, HC, CO2, particle mass (PM), and particle number (PN) emissions decrease when methanol-blended fuel is used in place of gasoline fuel. NOx emission either decreases or increases depending on the test conditions, i.e., methanol content. Furthermore, this review synthesizes the mechanisms by which methanol-blended fuel influences pollutant emissions. This review provides insight into the pollutant emissions from methanol-blended fuel, which will aid policymakers in making energy strategy decisions that take urban air pollution, climate change, and energy security into account.

Keywords Methanol fuel      Vehicular emission      Emission reduction      Cleaner fuel      Gasoline substitute     
Corresponding Author(s): Qijun Zhang,Hongjun Mao   
About author:

Tongcan Cui and Yizhe Hou contributed equally to this work.
Issue Date: 03 March 2022
 Cite this article:   
Chung Song Ho,Jianfei Peng,UnHyok Yun, et al. Impacts of methanol fuel on vehicular emissions: A review[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(9): 121.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-022-1553-4
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2022/V16/I9/121
Property Gasoline (typical) Methanol
Chemical formula C5H12-C12H26 (C8H15) CH3OH
CAS Number 86290-81-5 67-56-1
Research Octane Number (RON) 95 109
Molecular weight (g/mol) 111.2 32.04
Oxygen Content (wt%) 0 50
Carbon Content (wt%) 86 37.5
Hydrogen Content (wt%) 14 12.5
Molar C/H ratio 0.53 0.25
Stoichiometric AFR (kg/kg) 14.7 6.47
Density (kg/m3) 20 °C 760 790
Boiling Point (°C) 1 bar 27–225 64.5
(latent) Heat of Vaporization (MJ/kg) 25 °C ~0.351 1.17
Lower Heating Value (MJ/kg) 42.9 20.1
Higher Heating Value (MJ/kg) 48.0 22.9
Volumetric Energy Content (MJ/L) 31.7 15.9
Energy per Unit Mass of Air (MJ/kg) 2.92 3.09
Stoichiometric Flame Speed (m/s) 0.34 0.43
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (K) ~2275 2143
Quenching Distance (cm) ~0.2 0.18
Specific CO2 Emissions (g/MJ) 73.95 68.44
Tab.1  Properties of gasoline and methanol
Test fuel Engine type Test condition Effect on emission References
CO HC NOx CO2 PM/PN
M3, M7, M10 single-cylinder SI engine 1.3–1.6 kW, 2600–3450 r/min ↓ ↓ ↑ Elfasakhany, 2015
M3, M7, M10 single-cylinder SI engine 2600, 3400 r/min ↓ ↓ ↑ Elfasakhany2017
M10 single-cylinder SI engine load 0–100% ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Kak et al., 2015
M3–M15 four-cylinder SI engine ↓ ↓ ↑ Mallikarjun and Mamilla, 2009
M5, M10, M15 single-cylinder SI engine 500–1500 r/min ↓ ↓ ■ ↓ Mishra et al., 2020
M10, M20 four-cylinder MPFI SI engine 10–60 Nm, 1500–3500 r/min ↓ Lower BMEP;↑Higher BMEP;↓ NO↓ PN↓ Agarwal et al., 2014
M20 four-cylinder SI engine 1000–6000 r/min ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ Masum et al., 2014
M10–M30 three-cylinder PFI engine 2500 r/min, 10–30 Nm ↓ ↓ = Liu et al., 2007
M10, M20, M30 single-cylinder SI engine 0–1.4 kW ↓ ↓ NO↑ ↑ Farkade and Pathre, 2012
M15, M30, M50 four-cylinder SI engine 1000–4000 r/min ↓ ↓ ↑ Rifal and Sinaga, 2016
M50 single-cylinder SI engine 1200–1800 r/min ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Nuthan Prasad et al., 2020
M10, M30, M60 single-cylinder SI engine 1200 r/min ↑ M10↑; M30↑; M60↓ ↓ Li et al., 2017
M10, M20, M85 three-cylinder PFI engine 3000 r/min ↓ M10↓; M20↑; M85↓ M20=; M85↓ Wei et al., 2008
M15, M30 single-cylinder Dual-Fuel engine M–G ↓ ↑ ↓ PM↓; PN↓ Kalwar et al., 2020
M15, M45 four-cylinder PFI engine 2000 r/min PN, PM; M15↓; M45↑ Geng and Yao, 2015
M0–M100 four-cylinder Dual-Fuel SI engine M–G, G–M PN↓ Liu et al., 2015a; Liu et al., 2015b
M100 four-cylinder SI engine 1500–6000 r/min ↓ ↓ Pourkhesalian et al., 2010
M100 single-cylinder SI engine 1500–3500 r/min ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ?elik et al., 2011
M100 four-cylinder flex-fuel PFI engine 1500–4500 r/min ↓ ↓ ↓ Vancoillie et al., 2013
M100 four-cylinder HCCI engine 1200, 2400 r/min ↑ Maurya and Agarwal, 2014
M100 single-cylinder SI engine 1600–3600 r/min, Low power ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ Balki et al., 2014
M100 single-cylinder SI engine 2400 r/min, Low power ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ Balki and Sayin, 2014
M100 single-cylinder SI engine 1600–3600 r/min BSCO↓ BSHC↓ BSNO↓ BSCO2↑ Balki et al., 2016
M100 single-cylinder PFI engine 1500–4500 r/min, 10, 20 Nm = ↓ ↓ Turner et al., 2018
M57, M100 four-cylinder PFI engine 1500–3500 r/min, 40 Nm ↓ Turner et al., 2018
M56 single-cylinder DI engine 1500 r/min Light load;PN↑High load;PN↓ Turner et al., 2018
Tab.2  Emission characteristics using methanol-blended fuels via EBTs
Fig.1  The effect of methanol content on exhaust emission using methanol-gasoline blends (via EBTs). (a) CO. (b) HC. (c) NOx. (d) CO2. (e) PM and PN. Change compared to gasoline; A positive value indicates an increase in emissions compared to gasoline, and a negative value indicates a decrease.
Fig.2  Emission characteristics of M100 compared to gasoline. Change compared to gasoline; A positive value indicates an increase in emissions compared to gasoline, and a negative value indicates a decrease.
Test fuel Vehicle Test condition Effect on emission References
CO HC NOx CO2 PM/PN
M10, M15, M20, M30 Euro IV car NEDC ↓ ↓ ↓ = Zhang et al., 2009
M15 Euro IV passenger car NEDC25±2 °C ↓7%, 0.567EF ↓16%, 0.072 ↑85%, 0.133 Dai et al., 2013
M15, M25, M40 (production) GDI engine car NEDC22.0 ±0.5 , 24%±2% ↓9.4%–33.2%(0.28–0.21) ↓9.7%–36.9%(0.06–0.04) M15↓M40=(0.012–0.017) ↓0.8%–4.1% PM↓ 33.2%–40.2%PN↑ Wang et al., 2015b
M15, M20, M30, M50, M85, M100 Four passenger cars NEDC25±2 °C ↓11%–34%(0.55–1.05EF) ↓10%–49%(0.05–0.15) ↑53%–474%(0.02–0.58) Zhao et al., 2011
M15, M100 Two passenger cars NEDC25±2 °C M15↓9%M100↓21% M15↓1%M100↓55% M15↑175%M100↑233% Zhao et al., 2010
M15 GDI engine car and PFI engine car Cold start NEDC25±2 °C45.0%±2% GDI:PM↓78%(0.003)PN↓56%(2×1012 /km)PFI:PM↓74%(0.001)PN↓25%(7.5×1011 /km) Liang et al., 2013
M5, M10 1.4i SI engine car Vehicle speed: 40–100 km/h ↑ ↓ 40 km/h:↑100 km/h:↓ = Ozsezen and Canakci, 2011
M5, M10 1.4i SI engine car Vehicle speed:80, 100 km/h 80 km/h:↓14%100 km/h:M5↓6% M10↑3% ↓10%–35% 80 km/h:↓9%100 km/h:M5↓M10↑2.8% ↓M5:11.3%M10:3% Canakci et al., 2013
M100 China V Dual-Fuel passenger car NEDC22.0±0.2 °C 45.0%±0.3% ↓11.2% (0.35) = (0.040) = (0.011) ↓8.8% (160) ↓65.5% (1.25) Wang et al., 2015a
M100 Methanol-fueled China Vcar NEDC25–27 °C 30%–40% (0.33) (0.17) (0.14) Wang et al., 2016
M100 Six China IV methanol taxis 0.326–0.911 0.051–0.0799 0.0226–0.0386 PN0.65–2.71×1011 /km Su et al., 2020
M15 Three motorcycles UDC20–30 °C ↓63%–84%0.13–0.21 ↓11%–34.5%0.12–0.19 ↑76.9%–107.7%0.21–0.27 Li et al., 2015
M30 Motorcycle 5000–8500 r/min ↓ ↓ ↓ Sugita et al., 2019
M85 Motorcycle Low speed: 0–60 km/hHigh speed: 61–120 km/h Low speed:↑High speed:↓ Low speed:↑High speed:= ↑ Agarwal et al., 2020
Tab.3  Emission characteristics of methanol-blended fuels via CDTs
Fig.3  The effect of methanol content on exhaust emission using methanol-gasoline blends (via CDTs). (a) CO. (b) HC. (c) NOx. (d) CO2. (e) PM and PN. Change compared to gasoline: A positive value indicates an increase in emissions compared to gasoline, and a negative value indicates a decrease.
Impacts of methanol Mechanism Class References
Methanol reduces CO emission Methanol has a lower carbon content than gasoline. The carbon in the fuel is directly converted into CO during the combustion process, so the use of methanol-blended fuel reduces the formation and emission of CO. Direct Wei et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2010; Dai et al., 2013; Balki et al., 2014;Rifal and Sinaga, 2016
Methanol has a lower C/H ratio than gasoline. Direct Pourkhesalian et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2015b
The oxygen enrichment from methanol leads to a “pre-mixed oxygen effect” that promotes complete combustion. Direct Liu et al., 2007; Wei et al., 2008; Mallikarjun and Mamilla, 2009; Zhao et al., 2010; ?elik et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2011; Farkade and Pathre, 2012; Dai et al., 2013; Vancoillie et al., 2013; Agarwal et al., 2014; Balki and Sayin, 2014; Elfasakhany, 2015; Li et al., 2015; Rifal and Sinaga, 2016; Elfasakhany, 2017
The lower stoichiometric AFR of methanol leads to the leaning effect of the methanol-blended fuel, and this promotes complete combustion. Direct Qi et al., 2005; Pourkhesalian et al., 2010; Canakci et al., 2013; Masum et al., 2014; Elfasakhany, 2015; Wang et al., 2015b; Elfasakhany, 2017; Kalwar et al., 2020
Methanol has no C-C bond in its structure, which could help complete the combustion of the methanol-blended fuel. Direct Wang et al., 2015b
The lower boiling point of methanol makes the methanol-blended fuel completely vaporize, allowing for complete combustion. Indirect Elfasakhany, 2015; 2017
The higher heat of vaporization of methanol-blended fuel leads to lower intake manifold temperatures, and more air access occurs during fuel combustion. Indirect Elfasakhany, 2015; 2017
Methanol increases CO emission Methanol-blended fuel produces more triatomic products, which lowers the combustion temperature and slows down CO oxidation. Indirect Li et al., 2017
The shorter combustion process of methanol-blended fuel might result in insufficient oxygenation of CO. Indirect Li et al., 2017
Tab.4  Mechanism of methanol on CO emission
Impacts of methanol Mechanism Class References
Methanol reduces HC emission Methanol has no heavy HC. Direct Wei et al., 2008;Zhao et al., 2010
The oxygen in methanol provides sufficient oxygen, and this improves combustion efficiency. Direct Mallikarjun and Mamilla, 2009; Zhao et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2011; Farkade and Pathre, 2012; Canakci et al., 2013; Dai et al., 2013; Balki and Sayin, 2014;Masum et al., 2014; Elfasakhany, 2015; Li et al., 2015; Rifal and Sinaga, 2016; Elfasakhany, 2017; Li et al., 2017
Methanol has a lower carbon content than gasoline, which makes the combustion reaction more complete. Direct Zhao et al., 2010; Dai et al., 2013; Balki et al., 2014; Rifal and Sinaga, 2016
Methanol has a lower C/H ratio than gasoline Direct Wang et al., 2015b
The lower stoichiometric AFR of methanol leads to the leaning effect of the methanol-blended fuel, and this promotes complete combustion. Direct Elfasakhany, 2015; Wang et al., 2015b; Elfasakhany, 2017
The higher heat of vaporization of methanol-blended fuel leads to lower intake manifold temperatures, and more air access occurs during fuel combustion. Indirect Elfasakhany, 2015; 2017
The lower boiling point of methanol makes the methanol-blended fuel completely vaporize, allowing for complete combustion. Indirect Elfasakhany, 2015; 2017
Methanol increases HC emission The lower AFR of methanol leads to more fuel injection, which results in more fuel entering the crevice volumes or being absorbed in the oil layers. Direct Li et al., 2017
The combustion process of methanol-blended fuel is advanced, decreasing the exhaust temperature, which weakens the oxidation of HC. Indirect Wei et al., 2008
The higher heat of vaporization of methanol-blended fuel causes lower in-cylinder temperature, which may lead to misfire and partial combustion. Indirect ?elik et al., 2011; Agarwal et al., 2014
Tab.5  Mechanism of methanol on HC emission
Impacts of methanol Mechanism Class References
Methanol reduces NOx emission Methanol-blended fuel produces more triatomic products, which decrease the peak combustion temperature, reducing NOx emission. Indirect Wei et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2010
The higher heat of vaporization of methanol-blended fuel leads to the lower temperatures of the combustible mixture and the lower peak combustion temperatures in the cylinder, reducing NOx emission. Indirect ?elik et al., 2011; Canakci et al., 2013; Agarwal et al., 2014; Balki et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2015b; Kalwar et al., 2020; Su et al., 2020
The lower heating value and faster flame speed of methanol-blended fuel lead to lower spark advance, decreasing combustion temperature and reducing NOx emission. Indirect Pourkhesalian et al., 2010; Canakci et al., 2013; Balki and Sayin, 2014
The lower adiabatic flame temperature of methanol would help lower NOx emission using methanol-blended fuel. Indirect Wang et al., 2015b; Su et al., 2020
Methanol increases NOx emission The oxygen in methanol may supply additional oxygen for NOx production. Direct Mallikarjun and Mamilla, 2009; Farkade and Pathre, 2012; Canakci et al., 2013; Dai et al., 2013; Masum et al., 2014
The in-cylinder air-fuel mixture may become slightly lean when using methanol-blended fuel, resulting in more NOx production. Indirect Wang et al., 2015b
The faster flame propagation speed of methanol-blended fuel results in the increase of combustion temperature, and this may increase NOx production. Indirect Wei et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2011; Dai et al., 2013; Li et al., 2015
Tab.6  Mechanism of methanol on NOx emission
Impacts of methanol Mechanism Class References
Methanol reduces CO2 emission The lower CO2 formation per unit energy of methanol reduces CO2 emission from methanol-blended fuel. Direct Vancoillie et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2015a; Turner et al., 2018
The lower C/H ratio and carbon content of methanol reduce CO2 emission from methanol-blended fuel. Direct ?elik et al., 2011; Canakci et al., 2013
The higher BTE of methanol-blended fuel reduces CO2 emission. Indirect Vancoillie et al., 2013; Turner et al., 2018
The higher heat of vaporization and faster flame speed of methanol-blended fuel benefits the engine’s thermal efficiency, which reduces CO2 emission. Indirect Wang et al., 2015a
Methanol increases CO2 emission The oxygen in methanol enhances the combustion efficiency of methanol-blended fuel, which increases CO2 production. Direct Farkade and Pathre, 2012; Balki et al., 2014; Masum et al., 2014
The amount of methanol-blended fuel consumed per unit energy is higher, which results in a higher carbon flow rate. Indirect Masum et al., 2014
Tab.7  Mechanism of methanol on CO2 emission
Impacts of methanol Mechanism Class References
Methanol reduces PM emission Methanol has no C-C bond in its structure, which significantly prevents the formation of hydrocarbon fragments during the combustion process, hence reducing PM level. Direct Wang et al., 2015a
Methanol has no aromatic components that cause soot formation. Direct Liang et al., 2013
The oxygen in methanol improves soot oxidation, which contributes to PM reduction. Direct Kalwar et al., 2020
The faster flame speed of methanol-blended fuel leads to less time available for combustion, which reduces soot formation. Indirect Kalwar et al., 2020
Methanol increases PM emission The higher heat of vaporization of methanol-blended fuel results in the decrease of the cylinder temperature, which increases HC production, leading to more particulate formation. Indirect Geng and Yao, 2015
Tab.8  Mechanism of methanol on PM emission
Impacts of methanol Mechanism Class References
Methanol reduces PN emission Compared with gasoline, high-temperature oxidation of methanol forms fewer unsaturated micro-molecules (e.g., C2H2). Direct Geng and Yao, 2015; Su et al., 2020
The oxygen in methanol reduces the concentration of intermediate species that are important precursors of soot. Direct Turner et al., 2018
Methanol has a lower molecular weight, high oxygen content, and no aromatic content prone to soot formation. Direct Liang et al., 2013; Geng and Yao, 2015
The light molecular weight of methanol benefits in allowing combustion products to remain in the gas phase instead of becoming droplets through condensation after emission, which greatly reduces PN. Direct Su et al., 2020
Methanol increases PN emission Methanol-blended fuels with methanol content above a certain value lowers the exhaust temperature, which results in increase PN emission. Indirect Geng and Yao, 2015
The higher heat of vaporization of methanol-blended fuel results in the decrease of the cylinder temperature, which increases HC production, leading to more particulate formation. Indirect Geng and Yao, 2015
The addition of methanol increases the vapor pressure, resulting in flash-boiling of the fuel on injection and leading to inferior mixture preparation, which increases the PN emission. Indirect Turner et al., 2018
Tab.9  Mechanism of methanol on PN emission
Fig.4  Summary of the impacts of methanol fuel on vehicular emissions.
Abbreviations 　Nomenclature
ACEA 　European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association
AFR 　air/fuel ratio
Auto Alliance 　Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers
BTE 　brake thermal efficiency
CDTs 　chassis dynamometer tests
CH4 　methane
CO 　carbon monoxide
CO2 　carbon dioxide
C/H ratio 　carbon/hydrogen ratio
DI 　direct injection
EBTs 　engine bench tests
EFs 　emission factors
EGT 　exhaust gas temperature
EMA 　The Truck and Engine Manufacturers Association
EUDC 　Extra-Urban Driving Cycle
FFV 　flex-fuel vehicle
GDI 　gasoline direct injection
HC 　hydrocarbons
HCCI 　homogeneous charge compression ignition
IEA 　International Energy Agency
JAMA 　Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association
MPFI 　multipoint fuel injection
M3 　consisting of 97% gasoline and 3% methanol by 　volume blends
M7 　consisting of 93% gasoline and 7% methanol by 　volume blends
M10 　consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% methanol by 　volume blends
M15 　consisting of 85% gasoline and 10% methanol by 　volume blends
M20 　consis ting of 80% gasoline and 20% methanol by 　volume blends
M30 　consisting of 70% gasoline and 30% methanol by 　volume blends
M45 　consisting of 55% gasoline and 45% methanol by 　volume blends
M50 　consisting of 50% gasoline and 50% methanol by 　volume blends
  
M85 　consisting of 15% gasoline and 85% methanol by 　volume blends
M100 　pure methanol
NO 　nitric oxide
NO2 　nitrogen dioxide
NOx 　nitrogen oxides
N2O 　nitrous oxide
PAHs 　polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PFI 　port-fuel injection
PM 　particle mass
PN 　particle number
SI 　spark ignition
TWC 　three-way catalytic converters
UDC 　Urban Driving Cycle
  
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