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Frontiers of Medicine

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Front. Med.    2021, Vol. 15 Issue (3) : 333-346    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-020-0776-7
REVIEW
Innate immune responses in RNA viral infection
Qian Xu1,2, Yuting Tang1, Gang Huang1()
1. Divisions of Pathology and Experimental Hematology and Cancer Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
2. Department of Hematology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
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Abstract

RNA viruses cause a multitude of human diseases, including several pandemic events in the past century. Upon viral invasion, the innate immune system responds rapidly and plays a key role in activating the adaptive immune system. In the innate immune system, the interactions between pathogen-associated molecular patterns and host pattern recognition receptors activate multiple signaling pathways in immune cells and induce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and interferons to elicit antiviral responses. Macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells are the principal innate immune components that exert antiviral activities. In this review, the current understanding of innate immunity contributing to the restriction of RNA viral infections was briefly summarized. Besides the main role of immune cells in combating viral infection, the intercellular transfer of pathogen and host-derived materials and their epigenetic and metabolic interactions associated with innate immunity was discussed. This knowledge provides an enhanced understanding of the innate immune response to RNA viral infections in general and aids in the preparation for the existing and next emerging viral infections.
Keywords innate immune      viral infection      intercellular signaling      metabolic changes      epigenetic changes     
Corresponding Author(s): Gang Huang   
Just Accepted Date: 27 October 2020   Online First Date: 02 December 2020    Issue Date: 18 June 2021
 Cite this article:   
Qian Xu,Yuting Tang,Gang Huang. Innate immune responses in RNA viral infection[J]. Front. Med., 2021, 15(3): 333-346.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fmd/EN/10.1007/s11684-020-0776-7
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fmd/EN/Y2021/V15/I3/333
Fig.1  Schematic of RNA viral signaling pathway. Endosomes expose viral RNAs to TLR3, 7, and 8. The TLR signaling pathways consist of two major cascades, namely, MyD88 and TRIF, depending on TLR domain-containing adaptors. RIG-I and MDA5 could sense RNA in the cytoplasm and trigger the oligomerization of MAVS. These transduction cascades result in IRF3/7 and NF-kB activation, which induces IFN secretion. Types I and III IFNs are sensed by distinct membrane-bound receptor complexes and stimulate similar signaling pathways. IFNs could activate the transcription of ISGs through intracellular kinases JAK1 and TYK2 and induce signaling pathways through STAT1/STAT2/IRF9 binding to the IFN-stimulated response elements (ISREs) in target gene promoters. Subsequently, a large number of ISGs is activated.
PRRs 　 PAMPs Reference
TLRs (transmembrane) TLR1 Lipoproteins (bacteria) [42,43]
TLR2, TLR4 Structural proteins (capsid, envelope proteins) [42–45]
TLR3 dsRNA [5–8]
TLR5 Flagellin (bacteria) [46]
TLR6 Lipoproteins (bacteria) [42]
TLR7 ssRNA [9]
TLR8 ssRNA [9]
TLR9 CpG motif (bacteria, virus) [10]
TLR10 Not determined
RLRs (cytoplasm) RIG-I RNA [17,18]
MDA5 RNA [17,18]
LGP2 RNA [20,21]
NLRs (cytoplasm) NLRP3 DNA, RNA, protein, [33]
NLRP1 ssRNA [47]
NLRP9b dsRNA [47]
CLRs (membrane bound) MMR Mannose, fucose [23]
Others STING DNA [39,40]
Tab.1  PRRs in innate immune cells and PAMPs
Fig.2  NK cell surface receptors. NK cell surface receptors are broadly classified into four types: cytokine receptors, antibody receptors, activating receptors, and inhibitory receptors. When viral infection occurs, NK cells could be activated by cytokines, such as type I IFNs or IL-18 secreted by accessory cells. They could also be activated by antibody-coated cells that crosslink immunoglobulin G receptor CD16. KIRs and CD94/NKG2A are the major inhibitory receptors on NK cells. In addition, NK cells have activating receptors (e.g., NKG2D and NKG2C) expressed on their membrane that could initiate rapid killing of target cells.
Fig.3  Intercellular transfer of virus-derived RNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs), and inflammasome complex leading to bystander activation of innate immunity. Virus-derived RNAs, including miRNAs, are produced in the infected cells and packaged into exosomes, which are released into the extracellular space. Then, the RNAs are internalized by the uninfected cells via endocytosis and activate TLRs and RIG-I to induce the production of type I IFN. Inflammasome activation could induce IL-1b and IL-18 production and pyroptosis, which is a type of cell death that causes inflammasome complex release and phagocytosis by neighboring cells to induce inflammasome activation.
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