Microbial reduction of graphene oxide and its application in microbial fuel cells and biophotovoltaics

doi:10.1007/s11706-023-0642-z

Front. Mater. Sci.

2023, Vol. 17

Issue (2) : 230642 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11706-023-0642-z

REVIEW ARTICLE

Microbial reduction of graphene oxide and its application in microbial fuel cells and biophotovoltaics

Jing-Ye Tee^1,², Fong-Lee Ng¹(

), Fiona Seh-Lin Keng¹, G. Gnana kumar³, Siew-Moi Phang^1,⁴(

)

¹. Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences (IOES), Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
². Institute for Advanced Studies, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
³. Department of Physical Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625021, Tamil Nadu, India
⁴. Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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Abstract

Despite more than a decade of study, there are still significant obstacles to overcome before graphene can be successfully produced on a large scale for commercial use. Chemical oxidation of graphite to produce graphene oxide (GO), followed by a subsequent reduction process to synthesize reduced graphene oxide (rGO), is considered the most practical method for mass production. Microorganisms, which are abundant in nature and inexpensive, are one of the potential green reductants for rGO synthesis. However, there is no recent review discussing the reported microbial reduction of GO in detail. To address this, we present a comprehensive review on the reduction of GO by a range of microorganisms and compared their efficacies and reaction conditions. Also, presented were the mechanisms by which microorganisms reduce GO. We also reviewed the recent advancements in using microbially reduced GO as the anode and cathode material in the microbial fuel cell (MFC) and algal biophotovoltaics (BPV), as well as the challenges and future directions in microbial fuel cell research.

Keywords reduced graphene oxide microbial reduction microbial fuel cell algal biophotovoltaics green chemistry

Corresponding Author(s): Fong-Lee Ng,Siew-Moi Phang

Issue Date: 19 April 2023

Cite this article:

Jing-Ye Tee,Fong-Lee Ng,Fiona Seh-Lin Keng, et al. Microbial reduction of graphene oxide and its application in microbial fuel cells and biophotovoltaics[J]. Front. Mater. Sci., 2023, 17(2): 230642.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/foms/EN/10.1007/s11706-023-0642-z
https://academic.hep.com.cn/foms/EN/Y2023/V17/I2/230642

Microorganism	Reaction conditions					C/O ratio	I_D/I_G ratio	Potential application	Ref.
Microorganism	GO	Microorganisms	Duration	Temperature	Anaerobic/aerobic	C/O ratio	I_D/I_G ratio	Potential application	Ref.
S. oneidensis MR-1, S. amazonensis SB2B, S. baltica 10735^T, S. putrefaciens CN32 & S. putrefaciens W3-18-1	2 mg	10⁸ cells·mL^?1 Overnight culture in 10 mL of Shewanella Federation-defined medium with lactate	72 h	RT ^a)	Anaerobic	%C-C ^b): GO = 28; CrGO = 83; MR-1 = 56; SB2B = 75; 10735^T ≥ 95; CN32 = 91; W3-18-1 = 54	?	?	[21]
S. oneidensis MR-1, Shewanella sp. ANA-3	50 mL (0.3 mg·mL^?1)	100 mL of 12-h Culture in trypticase soy broth (TSB) medium	24?60 h	RT ^a)	Anaerobic and aerobic (shaken at 200 r·min^?1) conditions separately	GO = ~1.4; rGO-60 h = ~3.1	?	?	[22]
Shewanella oneidensis MR-1	0.5 mg·mL^?1	(OD₆₀₀ = 0.1) of Overnight culture in TSB medium	48 h	RT ^a)	Anaerobic and aerobic (shaken at 250 r·min^?1) conditions separately	GO = 1.03; MrGO = 2.13; CrGO = 6.17	GO = 0.85; MrGO = 1.0; CrGO = 1.0	?	[20]
Shewanella oneidensis MR-1	0.8 mg·mL^?1	1:1000 Dilution of overnight bacteria culture + 15 mmol·L^?1 lactate	40 h	?	Anaerobic	?	?	?	[40]
Shewanella sp. CF8-6	20 mL (0.2 mg·mL^?1)	100 mL Bacteria culture + 0.2 mg·mL^?1 sodium acetate	12 h	?	Anaerobic	GO = 0.86; rGO = 1.23	GO = 1.11; rGO = 1.26	Dye decolourization	[48]
Shewanella xiamenensis BC01, Shewanella putrefaciens CN32	0.17 mg·mL^?1	1 mL Bacterial suspension + 10 mL sodium acetate medium	8 d	28 °C	Anaerobic	?	?	Dye decolourization	[23]
Shewanella oneidensis MR-1	0.01 mg·mL^?1	Bacterial suspension (OD₆₀₀ = 0.5) in mineral medium	10 h	30 °C	Anaerobic	GO = 1.82; rGO = 2.79	GO = 0.92; rGO = 1.02	Oxygen evolution reaction	[50]
Sulfate-reducing bacteria	100 mL (0.1 mg·mL^?1)	20 mL SRB + 30 mL fresh medium	6 d	37 °C	Anaerobic	GO = 2.12; rGO = 4.02	GO = 1.02; rGO = 1.40	Electrochemical sensing	[25]
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans	5 mg	10 mL Bacteria (0.5×10⁹ cells per mL) in M9 medium	24 h	25 °C	Anaerobic	?	GO = 0.92; rGO = 1.13	Anti-biocorrosion	[24]
Enterococcus avium BY7	0.4 mL	0.5 mL Bacteria (OD₆₀₀ = 0.5) + 50 mL medium	?	30 °C	Anaerobic	GO = 1.39; rGO = 2.54	?	Heavy metal removal	[26]
Geobactersulfurreducens	0.4 mg·mL^?1	100 mL G. sulfurreducens suspension (OD₆₀₀ = 0.8) in growth media with 20 mmol·L^?1 acetate	48 h	30 °C	Anaerobic	GO = 2.78; rGO = 5.5	GO = 0.93; rGO = 1.18	Oxygen evolution reaction	[27]
Geobactersulfurreducens	0.6 mg·mL^?1	5% Inoculum of bacteria	?	30 °C	?	GO = 0.83; rGO = 2.04	GO = 0.945; rGO = 1.324	?	[28]
Escherichia coli	GO film (drop casting 5 mg·mL^?1 of GO suspension on SiO₂/Si(100) substrate)	Bacterial suspension	48 h	37 °C	Anaerobic	?	GO = 1.31; rGO = 0.97	Antibacterial coating	[29]
Escherichia coli	0.02 mg·mL^?1	10⁷?10⁸ cfu·mL^?1 Cells in saline (0.5% NaCl)	0.5?2 h	37 °C	Aerobic (continuous shaking)	GO = 2.68; rGO = 5.78	GO = 0.95; rGO = 0.72	?	[30]
Escherichia coli	0.5 mg·mL^?1	200 mg Bacteria in 20 mL of water	72 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 1.3; rGO = 2.6	?	[31]
Escherichia fergusoni	0.5 mg·mL^?1	200 mg Bacteria in 20 mL of water	72 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 1.58; rGO = 1.96	?	[32]
Bacillus sp., E. coli, E. cloacae, S. baltica, and extremophile consortium	30 mL (0.4 mg·mL^?1)	30 mg·mL^?1 Bacterial biomass	72 h	20?25 °C	Aerobic (shaken at 150 r·min^?1)	?	GO = 1.09; S. baltica-rGO = 0.99; Extremophile consortium-rGO = 1.05	?	[33]
Halomonas eurihalina and Halomonas maura	1 mg·mL^?1	1 mL Bacteria culture (OD₅₂₀ = 2.5)	5 d	32 °C	Aerobic: agitation speed of 110 r·min^?1; Anaerobic: without agitation in dark	?	GO = 1.24; H. eurihalina-rGO = 1.04; H. maura-rGO = 1.05	Biological applications	[51]
Fontibacillus aquaticus	0.015 mg·mL^?1	25 mL Bacterial culture grown in basal mineral medium	30 d	?	?	?	GO = 0.23; rGO = 0.11	?	[34]
Bacterial suspension from riverside	GO coated on silicon substrates	Microbial culture	72 h	28 °C	Anaerobic	GO = 3.24; MrGO = 8.1; UVrGO = 3.7; CrGO =15.9	GO = 1.4; MrGO = 1.55; UVrGO = 1.6; CrGO = 1.9	?	[35]
Lactobacillus plantarum	0.5 mg·mL^?1	200 mg Bacteria biomass	7 d	30 °C	?	GO = 1.7; rGO = 3.3	GO = 0.94; rGO = 0.92	?	[36]
Mixed culture of microorganisms from anaerobic sludge	0.1 wt.% of GO dispersion	200 mg Microbial cells	24 h	30 °C	Anaerobic	?	GO = ~ 0.9; MrGO = ~1.5; CrGO = ~ 1.8	Biological applications	[37]
Azotobacter chroococcum	100 mL (1 mg·mL^?1)	100 mg A. chroococcum	72 h	RT ^a)	?	GO = 2.23; rGO = 4.18	?	?	[38]
Pseudoalteromonas sp. CF10-13	0.2 mg·mL^?1 GO + sodium alginate	50% Bacteria inoculum in LB medium	?	80 °C	Anaerobic	?	GO = 1.03; rGO = 1.30	Dye decolourization	[49]
Bacillus marisflavi	0.5 mg·mL^?1	200 mg B. marisflavi biomass	72 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 1.4; rGO = 1.7	Biological applications	[53]
Bacillus subtilis	5 mg	10 mLCell suspension (0.5×10⁹ cells per mL) in M9 medium + 10 μg of VK₃	?	25 °C	Anaerobic	?	GO = 0.92; rGO = 1.01	Biological applications	[41]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	0.5 mg·mL^?1	200 mg P. aeruginosa biomass	48 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 1.4; rGO = 2.03	Biological applications	[52]
Gluconobacter roseus	0.5 g	0.1 g (wet weight) G. roseus dispersed in phosphate buffer + 5 g/100 mL sorbitol	24 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 1.12; rGO = 0.87	MFC	[54]
Bacteriorhodopsin (bR) extracted from Halobacterium salinarum	GO film on SiO₂ substrate	1 mL (5 mg·mL^?1) The purple membrane of H. salinarum	3 h	39 °C under irradiation of ~80 mW·cm^?2 yellow light	?	?	bR-reduced GO = 0.08; CrGO = 0.15	?	[39]
Baker’s yeast	200 mL (0.5 mg·mL^?1)	200 mg Baker’s yeast in deionized water	72 h	35?40 °C	?	GO = 2.2; rGO = 5.9	GO = 0.80; rGO = 1.44	?	[42]
Yeast extract	0.05?0.5 mg·mL^?1	30 mL Culture solution containing 0.5% yeast extracts	15 min	Autoclaved at 121 °C	?	GO = 1.8; rGO = 3.1	GO = 0.98; rGO = 0.999	Nanocomposites formation	[43]
Rhizopus oryzae	1 mg·mL^?1	Small pieces of semi dried mycelia of R. oryzae	24 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 0.96; rGO = 1.17	Antibacterial coating	[44]
Ganoderma lucidum	50 mL (0.1 mg·mL^?1)	50 mL G. lucidum extract (1 g mushroom powder in 100 mL Milli-Q water)	16 h	85 °C	?	?	GO = 0.94; rGO = 0.99	Biological application	[45]
Ganoderma sp.	1 mg·mL^?1	20 mg Ganoderma extracts powder in 20 mL of deionized water	24 h	37 °C	?	?	GO = 1.8; rGO = 2.1	Cancer therapy	[46]
Algal extracts of Scenedesmus vacuolatus, Chloroidium saccharophilum, Leptolyngbya JSC-1	100 mL (1 mg·mL^?1) GO	5 g Algae extracts in 100 mL water	24 h	95 °C	?	?	?	Heavy metal removal	[47]

Tab.1 List of publications on the microbial reduction of GO [20–54] (the reaction conditions and properties of the resulting rGO including I_D/I_G ratio obtained from Raman analysis and carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratio obtained from XPS analysis were compared)

Fig.1 Schematic representation of the production route of rGO by using microorganisms and its various applications, particularly in MFC and BPV.

Fig.2 Postulated direct EET pathway by S. oneidensis MR-1 to reduce GO, as reported by Jiao et al. [40] and Salas et al. [21].

Fig.3 Possible GO reduction mechanism by bacteria: (1) Leakage of cytoplasmic compounds through physical disruption of bacterial cell membrane by GO [33]; (2) Direct EET [21,29,40]; (3) Indirect EET through exogenous or self-secreted electron shuttle [22,37,40–41]; (4) Generation of ROS such as O₂^?? [30,33].

Fig.4 Comparison of carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratio of MrGO produced by different microorganisms through XPS analysis.

Tab.2 List of publications on the application of MrGO electrode in MFC or BPV [68–76]

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