Anodization of titanium alloys for orthopedic applications

doi:10.1007/s11705-018-1759-y

Front. Chem. Sci. Eng.

2019, Vol. 13

Issue (1) : 28-45 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11705-018-1759-y

REVIEW ARTICLE

Anodization of titanium alloys for orthopedic applications

Merve İzmir¹, Batur Ercan^1,²(

)

¹. Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
². Biomedical Engineering Program, Middle East Technical University, 066800 Ankara, Turkey

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Abstract

In recent years, nanostructured oxide films on titanium alloy surfaces have gained significant interest due to their electrical, catalytic and biological properties. In literature, there is variety of different approaches to fabricate nanostructured oxide films. Among these methods, anodization technique, which allows fine-tuning of oxide film thickness, feature size, topography and chemistry, is one of the most popular approaches to fabricate nanostructured oxide films on titanium alloys, and it has been widely investigated for orthopedic applications. Briefly, anodization is the growth of a controlled oxide film on a metallic component attached to the anode of an electrochemical cell. This review provides an overview of the anodization technique to grow nanostructured oxide films on titanium and titanium alloys and summarizes the interactions between anodized titanium alloy surfaces with cells in terms of cellular adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. It will start with summarizing the mechanism of nanofeatured oxide fabrication on titanium alloys and then switch its focus on the latest findings for anodization of titanium alloys, including the use of fluoride free electrolytes and anodization of 3D titanium foams. The review will also highlight areas requiring further research to successfully translate anodized titanium alloys to clinics for orthopedic applications.

Keywords titanium alloys anodization biocompatibility orthopedics

Corresponding Author(s): Batur Ercan

Just Accepted Date: 10 July 2018 Online First Date: 03 December 2018 Issue Date: 25 February 2019

Cite this article:

Merve İzmir,Batur Ercan. Anodization of titanium alloys for orthopedic applications[J]. Front. Chem. Sci. Eng., 2019, 13(1): 28-45.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fcse/EN/10.1007/s11705-018-1759-y
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fcse/EN/Y2019/V13/I1/28

Fig.1 Schematic depicting the growth of nanostructured oxide film on Ti6Al7Nb alloy. Image is reprinted with permission from reference [¹⁶]

Fig.2 (a) Current density-time graph (j-t) obtained during anodization of titanium using an electrolyte containing fluoride ions and (b) the representation of compact oxide layer (fluoride free electrolyte) and nanoporous/nanotubular oxide layers (fluoride containing electrolyte). Images are adapted with permission from references [²⁰,²¹]

Fig.3 SEM images showing nanotubular layers grown on (a) Ti6Al7Nb, (b) TiAl, and (c) TiZr using (NH₄)₂SO₄ electrolyte. Larger images show cross-sectional views and insets show top views of nanotubular layers. Images are adapted with permission from reference [²¹]

Fig.4 (a), (b) and (c) SEM images of flower-like nanotubular structures on titanium at different magnifications. Titanium samples were anodized using an electrolyte containing 0.3 mol·L⁻¹ sodium chloride and 6:4 distilled water to ethylene glycol ratio. Images are adapted with permission from reference [⁴⁸]

Fig.5 (a), (b), and (c) SEM images of an anodized titanium foam. Images are reprinted with permission from reference [⁵¹]

Fig.6 (a) Change of nanotubular diameters on titanium surfaces with the applied voltage and the corresponding SEM images of the anodized surfaces, (b) AFM scans showing the topography of conventional titanium and anodized nanotubular titanium having 40–60 nm diameters. Images are adapted with permission from references [⁶⁵,⁶⁶]

Fig.7 (A) Osteoblast densities on anodized surfaces up to 7 days of culture. # p<0.05 indicates significant difference between the flat titanium and anodized nanotubular surfaces; * p<0.05 indicates significant difference between 30 nm diameter nanotubular features with larger size (50–100 nm) ones; (B) Influence of nanotubular diameter on osteoblast elongation, $ p<0.05 compared to flat titanium and 30 and 50 nm diameter nanotubular titanium; (C) focal contact formation of MSCs on 15 and 100 nm diameter nanotubular surfaces at 1 and 3 days of culture. Cells were stained for paxillin (red), actin (green) and nucleus (blue). Scale bars are (a) and (b) 50 µm, (c) and (d) 100 µm. Images are reprinted with permission from references [⁶⁵,⁶⁷]

Fig.8 (a) and (b) placement of four different implants in the frontal skull of minipig and fluorescence microphotographs of (c) machined implant, (d) 30 nm, (e) 70 nm, (f) 100 nm diameter anodized nanotubular titanium implants at 8 weeks of implantation. Markers used in this study were xylenol (orange), calcein (green) and alizarin (red). Alizarin-labeled lines were most visible due to the latest injection of this dye and the xylenol orange-label was hardly detected as a result of bone metabolism. Scale bars are 200 mm. Images are adapted with permission from reference [⁷⁸]

Fig.9 (a) S. aureus growth after 24 h of culture on Anod_20_HT, Anod_80_HT, Conv_HT, and Conv Ti samples sterilized using ultraviolet light, ethanol immersion or steam autoclave. Values are mean±SEM, N = 3, * p<0.10 compared to conventional Ti, ** p<0.05 compared to conventional Ti, *** p<0.01 compared to conventional Ti and # p<0.05 compared to Conv_HT within each respective group. ◊ p<0.05 compared to respective autoclaved samples; and ‡ p<0.05 compared to respective autoclaved samples. Images are adapted with permission from reference. (b) S. aureus colonies grown on Anod_20_HT and conventional titanium (Conventional Ti) sterilized with EtOH immersion after 24 h of culture [⁸¹]

Fig.10 (a) S. aureus growth on conventional (Conv) and nanotubular (Anod) titanium surfaces up to 2 days of culture. * p<0.01 compared to conventional titanium; # p<0.01 compared to nanotubular titanium samples; ** p<0.01 compared to conventional titanium and (b) SEM images of S. aureus on nanotubular titanium surfaces. Scale bar is 2 mm. Images are adapted with permission from reference [⁶⁶]

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