Bioinspired cellulose-based membranes in oily wastewater treatment

doi:10.1007/s11783-021-1515-2

Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.

2022, Vol. 16

Issue (7) : 94 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-021-1515-2

REVIEW ARTICLE

Bioinspired cellulose-based membranes in oily wastewater treatment

Abdul Halim¹(

), Lusi Ernawati², Maya Ismayati³, Fahimah Martak⁴, Toshiharu Enomae⁵

¹. Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitas Internasional Semen Indonesia, Gresik 61122, Indonesia
². Department of Chemical Engineering, Kalimantan Institute of Technology, Balikpapan 76127, Indonesia
³. Research Center for Biomaterials, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor 16911, Indonesia
⁴. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, Kampus ITS Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia
⁵. Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8572, Japan

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Abstract

• Cellulose-based membrane separates oily wastewater mimicking the living things.

• The three central surface mechanisms were reviewed.

• Preparation, performance, and mechanism are critically evaluated.

• First review of wettability based cellulose membrane as major material.

• The current and future importance of the research are discussed.

It is challenging to purify oily wastewater, which affects water-energy-food production. One promising method is membrane-based separation. This paper reviews the current research trend of applying cellulose as a membrane material that mimics one of three typical biostructures: superhydrophobic, underwater superoleophobic, and Janus surfaces. Nature has provided efficient and effective structures through the evolutionary process. This has inspired many researchers to create technologies that mimic nature’s structures or the fabrication process. Lotus leaves, fish scales, and Namib beetles are three representative structures with distinct functional and surface properties: superhydrophobic, underwater superoleophobic, and Janus surfaces. The characteristics of these structures have been widely studied and applied to membrane materials to improve their performance. One attractive membrane material is cellulose, which has been studied from the perspective of its biodegradability and sustainability. In this review, the principles, mechanisms, fabrication processes, and membrane performances are summarized and compared. The theory of wettability is also described to build a comprehensive understanding of the concept. Finally, future outlook is discussed to challenge the gap between laboratory and industrial applications.

Keywords Cellulose Bioinspired membrane Superhydrophobic surface Underwater superoleophobic surface Oil-water separation

Corresponding Author(s): Abdul Halim

Issue Date: 02 December 2021

Cite this article:

Abdul Halim,Lusi Ernawati,Maya Ismayati, et al. Bioinspired cellulose-based membranes in oily wastewater treatment[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(7): 94.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-021-1515-2
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2022/V16/I7/94

Fig.1 (a) Contact angle of a smooth surface and the forced employment in its three interfaces, (b) Wenzel state, (c) Cassie-Baxter state, (d) Illustration of system free energy as a function of liquid-vapor interface, and (e) Infographic of the equation to predict contact angle.

Fig.2 (a) Several types of surface properties, (b) illustration of a receding contact angle, advancing contact angle and sliding contact angle, (c) measurement of an advancing and receding contact angle.

Fig.3 (a) The surface morphology of the lotus leaf consists of rough microscale groves and nanoscale tubes. The tubes consist of wax layer. (b) Separation mechanism of the superhydrophobic membrane. (a) Reproduced from (Ensikat et?al., 2011) Copyright 2011, Beilstein-Institut.

Fig.4 Schematic diagram of cellulose as a supporting material in a superhydrophobic membrane (a). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of several cellulose-based membranes, i.e., woven fabric (b), aerogel (c), paper (d), sponge (e), and non-woven fabric (f). (b) Reproduced with permission. (Cheng et?al., 2017c) Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced with permission. (Li et?al., 2019c) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. (d) Reproduced with permission. (Wang et?al., 2010) Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society. (e) Reproduced with permission. (Peng et?al., 2016a) Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. (f) Reproduced with permission. (Han et?al., 2018) Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.

Fig.5 (a) Diagram of coating types for superhydrophobic membranes. The coating particles could be either synthesized (b) or ready particles (c). The scanning electron microscopy of pure cotton fabric (d) directly absorbs water (insert of d). After coating (e), the fabric shows a superhydrophobic surface with a high water contact angle (insert of e). The structure of particles resembles a marigold flower (f). (d–f) Reproduced with permission (Huang et?al., 2015). Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig.6 (a) Diagram of performance evaluation of a superhydrophobic membrane. (b) Mirror effect of the superhydrophobic surface shows a silver-like appearance due to the air droplet in the surface void. (c) Droplet of several polar liquids. (d) Filtration process of the superhydrophobic membrane, before filtration shows droplet while after filtration shows no droplet. (b) Reproduced with permission. (Han et?al., 2016) Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (c) Reproduced with permission. (Zhou et?al., 2018) Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (d) Reproduced with permission. (Panda et?al., 2018) Copyright 2016, Elsevier.

Type of membranes	Active materials	Roughness enhancer	Supporting materials	Type of oil/water mixture	Flowrate	Separation efficiency	Driving force	Ref.
Cellulose superhydrophobic membrane	Polystyrene	SiO₂	Filter paper	Mixture of water/diesel oil	Not reported	>96%	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2010
	1H,1H,2H,2H- perfluoro octyltri ethoxy silane and polyaniline	FeCl₃	Cotton fabric	Emulsion of water/hexadecane	Not reported	>94%	Gravity	Zhou et?al., 2013
	Methyl trimethoxysilane	SiO₂	CNF aerogel	Emulsion of water/petroleum ether, /trichloro methane, /toluene, /hexane, /dichloro methane,/isooctane, /soybean oil, /gasoline, /motor oil, and /silicone oil	1910 L/m²/h	>99%	Gravity	Zhou et?al., 2018
	Poly (dimethylsiloxane)	SiO₂	Cotton fabric	Emulsion of water/silicone oil emulsion	Not reported	25%–99%	Pressure (diaphragm pump)	Han et?al., 2018
	Cu	Cu particle	Non-wood pulp aerogel	Mixture of emulsion of water/trichloro methane, /tetrachloromethane, /chlorobenzene	Not reported	>97%	Gravity	Li et?al., 2019c
	1H,1H,2H,2H- perfluoro octyltri ethoxysilane	TiO₂	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/petroleum ether	Not reported	98%	Gravity	Li et?al., 2015
	Copolymerization of hexafluorobutylmethacrylate and 3-methacryl oxypropyl trimethoxy silane	TiO₂	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/dichloro methane,/bromobenzene, /n-hexane, /petroleum, /trichloro methane	Not reported	>98%	Gravity	Yang et?al., 2019b
	Hexadecyl trimethoxysilane	Fe₃O₄	Cellulose sponge	Emulsion of water/toluene, /petroleum ether, /n-hexane, /paraffin oil, /cyclohexane	50–800 kg/m²/h/bar	95%–99%	Pressure (0.02 MPa)	Peng et?al., 2016a
	Dodecyl trimethoxysilane	Fly ash	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/n-hexane, /toluene, /chloroform, /gasoline, /diesel	Not reported	90.5%–96%	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2016a
	Epoxidized soybean oil and hexadecyl trimethoxy silane	CNC	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/chloroform, /toluene, /hexane, /petroleum ether	55000–65000 L/m²/h	98%–99%	Gravity	Cheng et?al., 2018a
	Triethoxy vinyl silane	AlOOH	Filter paper	Emulsion of water/toluene, /chloroform, /diesel, /heptane	412–557 L/m²/h	Not reported	Gravity	Yue et?al., 2018b
	Trichloro (Octadecyl) silane	None	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/petroleum ether, /kerosene, /benzene	Not reported	96.3%–99.2%	Gravity	Panda et?al., 2018
	Stearic acid	ZnO	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/decane, /petroleum ether, /toluene, /chloroform, /silicon oil	480 L/m²/h for silicon oil and 23500–33800 L/m²/h for another	90%–99%	Gravity	Cheng et?al., 2017c
	Cyanate ester	TiO₂	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/engine oil, /waste engine oil, /petrol, /diesel	7200 L/m²/h	98%	Gravity	Arumugam et?al., 2021
	Polyamideamine	–	Cellulose nanofiber aerogel	Emulsion of water/mineral oil, /hexadecane, /canola oil, /peanut oil	Not reported	98.60%	Gravity	He et?al., 2016
	Octadecyl trichlorosilane	–	Cellulose sponge	Mixture of water/vegetable oil, /hexane, /cyclohexane, /chloroform	Not reported	92%–97.5%	Pressure (peristaltic pump)	Meng et?al., 2020
	Stearic acid	Bacterial cellulose	Non-bleached kraft pulp aerogel	Mixture of water/dichloro methane mixture	1667.63 L/m²/h	>95%	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2021a
	Ooctadecanoyl group and grafting of poly (styrene-co- acrylonitrile)	–	Filter paper	Mixture of water/dichloro methane, /carbon tetrachloride, /chlorobenzene	Not reported	>98.5%	Gravity	Zhang et?al., 2020a
	Polystyrene, stearic acid	ZnO	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/n-hexane	Not reported	92%	Gravity	Zhang et?al., 2013
	poly(methyl hydrogen) siloxane	SiO₂	Filter paper	Mixture of water/diesel oil	Not reported	96%–99%	Gravity	Zhang et?al., 2020b
	Stearic acid, sebatic acid, epoxidized soybean oil	ZnO	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/decane, /petroleum ether, /toluene, /chloroform, /silicon oil	459 L/m²/h for silicon oil and 30000–40000 L/m²/h for another	97%–99%	Gravity	Cheng et?al., 2018b
	Stearic acid	Zn-Al	Filter paper	Mixture of water/toluene, /diesel oil, /petroleum ether, /chloroform, /heptane	1.38 L/m²/h	>95%	Gravity	Yue et?al., 2017
	Octadecyl trimethoxysilane	TiO₂	Cellulose sponge	Chloroform/water mixture	Not reported	83%–96.5%	Gravity	Zhang et?al., 2017a
Non cellulose superhydrophobic membrane	–	ZnO	Polyester fabric	Hexane, isooctane, petroleoum, carbon tetrachloride, peanut oil	Not reported	95%–98%	Gravity	Zhang et?al., 2019b
	–	–	Carbon aerogel of banana peel and paper waste	Emulsion of water/toluene, /hexadecane, /diesel, /chloroform	1480–8740 L/m²/h	99.60%	Gravity	Yue et?al., 2018a
	Polyvinylbutyral nanofibrous	–	Stainless steel meshes	Emulsion of water/liquid paraffin	~5500 L/m²/h	~99.5%	Gravity	Song and Xu, 2016
	Carbon nanotubes	–	poly(vinylidene fluoride) fiber mat	Emulsion of water/1,2-dichloroethane	1146.5?L/m²/h	Not reported	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2021b
	Carbon nanotubes	–	poly(vinylidene fluoride) fiber mat	Mixture of water/dichloromethane, /chloroform, /1,2-dichloroethane	3500–8500 L/m²/h	~99%	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2021b
	–	SiO₂	polyphenylene sulfide	Emulsion of water/kerosene, /chloroform, /toluene	530–730?L/m²/h	>99%	Pressure (0.09 MPa)	Fan et?al., 2019

Tab.2 Summary of superhydrophobic membranes

Fig.7 (a) Photo image of fish skin. (b) SEM image of mucus, and no mucus fish skin surface. (c) A drop of oil on the surface of fish skin shows a superoleophobic contact angle. (d) The contact angle value of fish skin under air and underwater with and without mucus. (e) Separation mechanism of superoleophobic membrane. Small droplets collide with each other (1). Small droplets collide with large droplets (2). Oil droplet is rejected (3) and water passes through the membrane (4). (a–d) Reproduced with permission. (Waghmare et?al., 2014) Copyright 2014, Springer Nature.

Fig.8 (a) Classification diagram of cellulose in superoleophobic membranes. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of cellulose hydrogel coated mesh (b), cellulose hydrogel coated filter paper (c), filter paper with coated particle (d), and cellulose sponge (e). (b) Reproduced with permission. (Ao et?al., 2018) Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (c) Reproduced with permission. (Rohrbach et?al., 2014) Copyright 2014, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Reproduced with permission. (Yang et?al., 2020) Copyright 2020, Springer. (e) Reproduced with permission (Wang et?al., 2015b). Copyright 2015, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig.9 (a) Photo image of an oil droplet on a superoleophobic surface. (b) Illustration of separation performance evaluation. h is the maximum high of oil after separation was completed to measure breakthrough pressure. (c) The red line shows when a red laser beams through water containing microdroplets, while no red line appears for filtrates. (d) Before separation, the emulsion appears white in color with droplets of oil. However, after separation, the filtrate shows a clear appearance with no droplets detected. (a) and (d) Reproduced from (Wang et?al., 2017a) Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. (c) Reproduced with permission. (Cheng et?al., 2017b) Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

Type of Membranes	Active materials	Roughness enhancer	Supporting materials	Type of oil	Flowrate	Separation efficiency	Driving force	Ref.
Cellulose superoleophobic membrane	Aqueous counter collison cellulose nanofiber	–	Cellulose sponge	Canola oil/water mixture	3.73×10³ L/m^2/h	98.50%	Gravity	Halim et?al., 2019
	TEMPO-Oxidized cellulose nanofiber	–	Cellulose sponge	Canola oil/water mixture	166 L/m²/h	99.98%	Gravity	Halim et?al., 2019
	TEMPO-Oxidized cellulose nanofiber	–	Filter paper	n-hexane/water emulsion	89.6 L/m²/h	>99%	Gravity	Rohrbach et?al., 2014
	–	–	Cellulose sponge	Toluene/water emulsion	91 L/m²/h	>99.94%	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2015b
	Polyvinylpyrrolidone	–	Compressed cotton	n-hexane/, n-hexadecane/, isooctane/, diesel/water emulsion	15500–23900 L/m²/h/bar	Not reported	Pressure (100 kPa)	Wang et?al., 2017a
	Polyvinylpyrrolidone	–	Cotton	n-hexane/, n-hexadecane/, isooctane/, diesel/water mixture	61200–66800 L/m²/h	Not reported	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2017a
	–	–	Graphene oxide@ electrospun CNF	n-hexane/water mixture	2850 L/m²/h	99.60%	Gravity	Ao et?al., 2017
	Cellulose	–	Nylon mesh	Hexane/, petro-ether/, gasoline/, diesel/water mixture	Not reported	~99.99%	Gravity	Lu et?al., 2014
	Cellulose nanosheet	–	Cellulose acetate	Petroleum ether/, dichloromethane/, isooctane/, cyclohexane/water emulsion	1550–1591 L/m²/h/bar	96%–98%	Pressure (80 kPa)	Zhou et?al., 2014
	Tunicate cellulose nanocrystal	–	Nylon	n-hexane/water emulsion	1549 L/m²/h/bar	99.99%	Pressure (0.5 bar)	Cheng et?al., 2017b
	Polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene	–	Cellulose	Corn oil/, gasoline, crude oil/, motor oil/water emulsion	125–1781 L/m²/h/bar	90.1%–99.98%	Pressure (65 kPa)	Ahmed et?al., 2014
	Tunicate CNC and TiO₂	Tunicate CNC and TiO₂	Cellulose ester membrane	Hexadecane/, soybean oil/, pump oil/water emulsion	1728.8–1887.4 L/m²/h/bar	99%	Pressure (0.05 kPa)	Zhan et?al., 2018
	Poly(N,N-dimethylamino-2-ethyl methacrylate)	–	Poly(N,N-dimethyl amino-2 -ethyl methacrylate) grafted cellulose nanofiber aerogel	Petroleum ether/water emulsion	1000 L/m²/h	>99%	Gravity	Li et?al., 2019b
	–	–	Printed cellulose mat	Hexadecane/, cyclohexane/, poly (dimethyl siloxane)/, xylene/water mixture	~160000 L/m²/h	92%–99%	Gravity	Koh et?al., 2019
	Polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel	–	Filter paper	Hexane/, diesel/, gasoline/water emulsion	43–63 L/m²/h	>99%	Gravity	Fan et?al., 2015
	Guar gum hydrogel	–	Cotton fabric	Silicone oil/, canola oil/, cyclohexane/water mixture	1467 L/m²/h	97.5%–99.5%	Gravity	Dai et?al., 2019
	Cellulose, graphene oxide	–	Cellulose aerogel	Petroleum ether/, dodecane/, cyclohexane/, toluene/, soy oil/, hexane/, dichloro methane/water mixture	15000–22900 L/m²/h	>99%	Gravity	Fu et?al., 2020
	Cellulose, polyvinyl alcohol	–	Filter paper	Hexane/, chloroform/, cyclohexane/, dichloro methane/, toluene/water emulsion	37–68 L/m²/h	98.74%–99.99%	Gravity	Xu et?al., 2019
	–	ZnO	Cotton fabric	Dichloro methane/, dichloroethane/, chloroform/, chlorobenzene/, n-hexane/, petroleum ether/water mixture	10000–18500 L/m²/h	>97%	Gravity	Gao et?al., 2018
	–	–	Cellulose/chitosan aerogel	Toluene/water emulsion	1100–1175 kg/m²/h	96.50%	Gravity	Peng et?al., 2016b
	Tunicate chemically crosslinked	–	Filter paper	Hexane/, petroleum ether/, and soybean oil/water emulsion	238–317 L/m²/h/bar	99.99%	Pressure (0.5 bar)	Huang et?al., 2019b
	Cellulose hydrogel	–	Metal mesh	Hexane/, cyclohexane/, petroleum ether/, paraffin liquid,/ pump oil/, xylene/water mixture	12885 L/m²/h	~99%	Gravity	Ao et?al., 2018
	–	–	Cellulose micro/ nanofiber	Cyclohexane/, n-hexane/, trichloromethane/, dichloromethane/, soybean oil/water emulsion	150–180 L/m²/h	97%–98.5%	Pressure (5 kPa)	Li et?al., 2021
	Cellulose hydrogel	–	Stainless steel mesh	Soybean oil/, decane/, petroleum ether/, toluene/water mixture	31428–38064 L/m²/h	98.89%–99.96%	Gravity	Xie et?al., 2020
	Polydopamine	BaSO₄	Filter paper	Petroleum ether/, hexane/, toluene/, soybean oil/, dichloroethane/water mixtures	225–900 L/m²/h	>98%	Gravity	Yang et?al., 2020
	–	–	Bacterial cellulose nanofiber	n-hexadecane/water emulsion	9.09 L/m²/h/bar	~99%	Pressure (5.5 bar)	Zhuang et?al., 2020
	carbon nanotube-polyvinyl alcohol	–	Cellulose membrane	Hexadecane/, soybean oil/, Commercial cutting fluid emulsion	83–944 L/m²/h/bar	91%–96.7%	Pressure (0.1 bar)	Yi et?al., 2019
Non-cellulose superoleophobic membrane	–	–	Freeze drying CNF chitosan	Soybean oil/water mixture	12600–13680 L/m²/h	Not reported	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2017c
	–	–	Alginate graphene oxide	Kerosene/water mixture	13680 L/m²/h	99.60%	Gravity	Li et?al., 2017b
	Guar gum	–	Stainless steel mesh	Cyclohexane/, canola oil/, crude oil/, silicone oil/water mixture	2800–2850 L/m²/h	98.75%–99.7%	Gravity	Dai et?al., 2017
	Chitosan	Silica	Polyvinylidene fluoride	Gasoline/water emulsion	Not reported	>99%	Pressure (0.03 MPa)	Liu et?al., 2016b
	Chitosan- Sodium perfluorononanoate	Fe₃PO₄	Melamine sponge	Soybean oil/, pump oil/, silicone oil/water mixture	Not reported	94%–97.6%	Gravity	Su et?al., 2017
	Graphene oxide	TiO₂	PVDF membrane	Industrial oily wastewater, hexadecane/water emulsion	370 L/m²/h/bar	70.20%	Pressure (0.2 bar)	Wu et?al., 2018
	Catechol/chitosan	–	PVDF membrane	n-hexadecane/, crude oil/, peanut oil/water emulsion	9000–12000 L/m²/h/bar	88%–92%	Pressure (20 kPa)	Zhao et?al., 2021
	Branched poly(ethylenimine), ammonium polyphosphate, phytic acid	TiO₂	Polyethylene terephthalate fabric	Kerosene/, hexane/, heptane/, diesel/, toluene/water emulsion	550–800 L/m²/h/bar	~99%	Pressure (not reported)	Peng et?al., 2020
		TiO₂	Polyethylene terephthalate fabric	Hexadecane/, decane/, hexane/, toluene/water mixtures	32.5 L/m²/s	~98%	Gravity	Peng et?al., 2020

Tab.3 Summary of superoleophobic membranes

Fig.10 (a) Photo image of water on the surface of a Salvinia leaf. (b) SEM image of Salvinia fur shows its superhydrophobic properties. However, a close look reveals its hydrophilic feature in that the drop’s surface attracts to the top of the fur (c). (d) SEM image of Salvania fur with its hydrophilic function on the top and hydrophobic function on the bottom. (e) Photo image of Namib beetle. (f) Namib beetle’s skin shows hydrophilic and hydrophobic feature. A Janus surface shows superhydrophilic on one side (g) and superhydrophobic on another side (h). (a–d) Reproduced with permission. (Barthlott et?al., 2010) Copyright 2010, Wiley-VCH. (e and f) Reproduced with permission. (Parker and Lawrence, 2001) Copyright 2001, Nature Publishing Group. (g and h) Reproduced with permission. (Wang et?al., 2016e) Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH.

Fig.11 (a) Proposed type of Janus membrane. (b) Separation mechanism of A and B types. (b) Reproduced with permission. (Yue et?al., 2018c) Copyright 2018, Springer Nature and Reproduced with permission. (Lv et?al., 2019) Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Fig.12 Separation mechanism of A on B and B on A with A as hydrophobic and B as hydrophilic. A on B is suited to separating water-in-oil emulsions when the A layer faces the feed (a) and no penetration occurs when the B layer faces the feed (b). B on A type is suited to separating oil-in-water emulsions when the B layer faces the feed (c) but no penetration occurs when the A layer faces the feed (d).

Fig.13 Schematic diagram of Janus fabrication method for single-face electrospinning (a), sequentially vacuum filtration (b), vapor treatment coating (c), single-faced photo crosslinking (d), single-faced coating (e), surface modification (f) and molecular migration (g).

Active materials		Roughness enhancer	Supporting materials	Type of oil	Flowrate	Separation efficiency	Driving force	Ref.
Hydrophobic part	Hydrophilic part	Roughness enhancer	Supporting materials	Type of oil	Flowrate	Separation efficiency	Driving force	Ref.
Poly(dimethyl siloxane)	Poly (N,Ndimethyl amino ethylmethacrylate)	None	Cotton fabric	Toluene/, hexadecane/, chlorobenzene/water emulsion	490–6700 L/m²/h	Not reported	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2016d
Poly(dimethyl siloxane)	Poly (N,Ndimethyl amino ethylmethacrylate)	None	Cotton fabric	Toluene/, hexane/, hexadecane/, chlorobenzene/water emulsion	1500–10500 L/m²/h	Not reported	Gravity	Wang et?al., 2016e
Sodium laurate	MnO₂ nanowire	ZnO nanorod and MnO₂ nanowire	Filter paper	Emulsion of water/hexadecane, water/toluene, water/chloroform, /diesel	1590–8840 L/m²/h/bar	99.40%	Pressure (0.03 MPa)	Yue et?al., 2018c
Sodium laurate	MnO₂ nanowire	ZnO nanorod and MnO₂ nanowire	Filter paper	Hexadecane/water, toluene/, chloroform/, diesel/water emulsions	8380–13740 L/m²/h/bar	99.80%	Pressure (0.03 MPa)	Yue et?al., 2018c
Methyl trimethoxy silane crosslinked cellulose nanofiber	3-glycidoxy propyl trimethoxy silane crosslinked cellulose nanofiber	None	CNF aerogel	Mixture of water/toluene, /dichloromethane, /tetrahydrofuran, /n-hexane	1200–3200 L/m²/h	40%–99%	Gravity	Agaba et?al., 2021
Methyl trimethoxy silane crosslinked cellulose nanofiber		None	CNF aerogel	Toluene/, dichloromethane/, tetrahydrofuran/, n-hexane/ water mixture	1400–2600 L/m²/h	50%–90%	Gravity	Agaba et?al., 2021
Poly lactic acid, nano clay	Cellulose	Nano clay	Cotton fabric	Diesel/, petrol/, n-hexane/, toluene/, xylene/water mixture	11000–32000 L/m²/h	95%–99%	Gravity	Gore et?al., 2018
Octadecyl triethoxysilane	MnO₂	Co(CO₃)·0.5OH·0.11 H₂O nanoneedle	Cotton fabric	Hexane/, toluene/, dodecane/, diesel/water mixture	7187 L/m²/h	~98%	Gravity	Hu et?al., 2020
Octadecyl triethoxysilane	MnO₂	Co(CO₃)·0.5OH·0.11 H₂O nanoneedle	Cotton fabric	Mixture of water/dichloromethane, /carbon tetrachloride	70200–77760 L/m²/h	~98%	Gravity	Hu et?al., 2020
Stearic acid	Cellulose	Ag nanoparticle	Cellulose membrane	Toluene/, carbon tetrachloride/, hexane/, chloroform/, dichloromethane/water emulsion	623.5–685.2L/m²/h	95.62%–97.25%	Gravity	Lv et?al., 2019
Stearic acid	Cellulose	Ag nanoparticle	Cellulose membrane	Water/toluene, /carbon tetrachloride, /hexane, /chloroform, /dichloromethane emulsion	296.6–345.2 L/m²/h	95.25%–98.32%	Gravity	Lv et?al., 2019

Tab.4 Summary of Janus membranes

Tab.5 Commercial and non-superoleophobic, non-superhydrophobic, and non-Janus membrane performance

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