|
|
Behavioural responses of ex-situ captive hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) in lactation season: Maternal investment and plasticity of infant self-independence |
Wei CHEN1,2(), Mallikarjun P. HANDIGUND2, Jinghua MA3, Lucia Lopez LOPEZ2, Xianfu ZHANG4() |
1. Department of Evolutionary Ecology and Genetics, Zoological Institute, University of Kiel, Kiel 24118, Germany; 2. Ecology Center, University of Kiel, Kiel 24118, Germany; 3. Hangzhou Wildlife Park, Hangzhou 311422, China; 4. Breeding Base for State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Forest Cultivation, Zhejiang A & F University, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311300, China |
|
|
Abstract In order to promote hippopotamus management in the captive and ex-situ environment, especially the control of behavioural and physiological status during breeding and lactation seasons, we conducted a preliminary study on behavioural responses of a pair of hippos including both mother and infant in Hangzhou Wildlife Park, China. The study of the captive hippos for about 1-month in the lactation season was carried out during August and September, 2009. The behavioural patterns were identified by all occurrence sampling and instantaneous scanning sampling methods with 5–10 min intervals. As a result, mother-offspring conflicts and interactions did occur throughout the whole study period. Early maternal investment showed a positive trend in activity rhythms (slope= 0.0014, Z = 0.3027, P<0.001) and a negative trend (slope= -0.0066, Z = 0.8807, P<0.001) in territorial occupation of water, all of which supported our hypotheses that the mother hippo might exert less care for the infant and cut down on her own obligations in nursing. For infant self-independence, during the whole lactation season, the primary trends of activities and territorial occupation dynamics of the infant hippo were slightly different from before, judging from linear models (slope= -0.0017, Z = 0. 3309, P<0.001). However, the frequencies of activities were not stable, especially at around 12 days of age. The trends of territorial occupation (slope= -0.0071, Z = 0. 904, P<0.001) also showed negative dynamics in water body occupation by the time the infant hippo grew up. The general trend (slope= -0.005, Z = 0.06, P<0.001) of suckling dynamics was demonstrably negative, with an upwards fluctuation at period 3 (10–15th day). This also illustrated that as the infant developed, the dependency on the mother was reduced at the end of the lactation season. In addition, a sharp decline between P3 and P4 also supported the mother-offspring conflict theory. In general, time budgets of hippos in active behaviour were (31.8±2.1)% for the mother and (32.1±2.6)% for the infant. Spatial distributions in water within temporal limitations were (80.1±2.7)% for the mother and (81.8±2.7)% for the infant. Behavioural dynamics showed strong synchronous relations between maternal investment and infant independence. Our current short-term investigation proves to be a key in management and conservation of hippopotami during the lactation season.
|
Keywords
hippopotamus (hippopotamus amphibius)
behaviour
captive
maternal investment
infant independence
lactation season
zoo
|
Corresponding Author(s):
CHEN Wei,Email:wchen@zoologie.uni-kiel.de; ZHANG Xianfu,Email:zhangxianfu@yahoo.cn
|
Issue Date: 01 December 2010
|
|
1 |
Bronson F H (1989). Mammalian Reproductive Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
|
2 |
Carlisle T R (1982). Brood success in variable environments: implications for parental care allocation. Anim Behav , 30(3): 824–836
|
3 |
Dittrich L (1976). Age of sexual maturity in the hippopotamus. Int Zoo Yearb , 16(1): 171–173 doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1090.1976.tb00168.x
|
4 |
Eltringham S K (1999). The Hippopotami: Natural History and Conservation. London: Academic Press
|
5 |
Gomendio M (1991). Parent/offspring conflict and maternal investment in rhesus macaques. Anim Behav , 42(6): 993–1005 doi: 10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80152-6
|
6 |
Langer P (2008). The phases of maternal investment in eutherian mammals. Zoology (Jena) , 111(2): 148–162
|
7 |
Laws R M, Clough G (1966). Observations on reproduction in the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius). Symposium of the Zoological Society of London , 15: 117–140
|
8 |
Lee P C, Moss C J (1986). Early maternal investment in male and female African elephant calves. Behav Ecol Sociobiol , 18(5): 353–361 doi: 10.1007/BF00299666
|
9 |
MacNair M R, Parker G A (1978). Models of parent-offspring conflict. II. Promiscuity. Anim Behav , 26(1): 111–122 doi: 10.1016/0003-3472(78)90010-6
|
10 |
Marshall P J, Sayer J A (1976). Population ecology and response to cropping of a hippopotamus population in eastern Zambia. J Appl Ecol , 13(2): 391–403 doi: 10.2307/2401788
|
11 |
McCarthy T S, Ellery W N, Bloem A (1998). Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Afr J Ecol , 36(1): 44–56 doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x
|
12 |
Parker G A, MacNair M R (1978). Models of parent-offspring conflict. I. Monogamy. Anim Behav , 26(1): 97–110 doi: 10.1016/0003-3472(78)90009-X
|
13 |
Pluhá?ek J, Barto? L, Barto?ová J (2010a). Mother–offspring conflict in captive plains zebra (Equus burchellii): Suckling bout duration. Appl Anim Behav Sci , 122(2-4): 127–132
|
14 |
Pluhá?ek J, Barto?ová J, Barto? L (2010b). Suckling behavior in captive plains zebra (Equus burchellii): sex differences in foal behavior. J Anim Sci , 88(1): 131–136 doi: 10.2527/jas.2009-1982
|
15 |
Sikes R S (1995). Maternal response to resource limitations in eastern woodrats. Anim Behav , 49(6): 1551–1558 doi: 10.1016/0003-3472(95)90076-4
|
16 |
Smith J M (1980). A new theory of sexual investment. Behav Ecol Sociobiol , 7(3): 247–251 doi: 10.1007/BF00299371
|
17 |
Smith T E, Richards M, Joseph S, Savage A, Plowman A B (2000). Determinants of pregnancy in the Nile Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius). In: Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Symposium on Zoo Research, Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland, London
|
18 |
Smuts G L, Whyte I J (1981). Relationships between reproduction and environment in the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) in the Kruger National Park. Koedoe , 24: 169–185
|
19 |
Trivers R L (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Cambell B, ed. Sexual selection and the descent of man . Chicago: Aldine, 136–179
|
20 |
Trivers R L (1974). Parent-offspring conflict. Am Zool , 14(1): 249–264
|
|
Viewed |
|
|
|
Full text
|
|
|
|
|
Abstract
|
|
|
|
|
Cited |
|
|
|
|
|
Shared |
|
|
|
|
|
Discussed |
|
|
|
|