Near-field radiative thermoelectric energy converters: a review

doi:10.1007/s11708-017-0517-z

Front. Energy

2018, Vol. 12

Issue (1) : 5-21 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-017-0517-z

REVIEW ARTICLE

Near-field radiative thermoelectric energy converters: a review

Eric TERVO, Elham BAGHERISERESHKI, Zhuomin ZHANG(

)

George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA

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Abstract

Radiative thermoelectric energy converters, which include thermophotovoltaic cells, thermoradiative cells, electroluminescent refrigerators, and negative electroluminescent refrigerators, are semiconductor p-n devices that either generate electricity or extract heat from a cold body while exchanging thermal radiation with their surroundings. If this exchange occurs at micro or nanoscale distances, power densities can be greatly enhanced and near-field radiation effects may improve performance. This review covers the fundamentals of near-field thermal radiation, photon entropy, and nonequilibrium effects in semiconductor diodes that underpin device operation. The development and state of the art of these near-field converters are discussed in detail, and remaining challenges and opportunities for progress are identified.

Keywords energy conversion systems luminescent refrigeration near-field radiation thermophotovoltaic thermoradiative cell

Corresponding Author(s): Zhuomin ZHANG

Just Accepted Date: 30 October 2017 Online First Date: 05 December 2017 Issue Date: 08 March 2018

Cite this article:

Eric TERVO,Elham BAGHERISERESHKI,Zhuomin ZHANG. Near-field radiative thermoelectric energy converters: a review[J]. Front. Energy, 2018, 12(1): 5-21.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/10.1007/s11708-017-0517-z
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/Y2018/V12/I1/5

Fig.1 Schematics of the four types of radiative thermoelectric energy converters (RTECs)

Fig.2 Schematic of photon tunneling enabling high near-field radiation heat transfer between a hot and cold object. Upon total internal reflection of a propagating electromagnetic wave in medium 1, an exponentially decaying field exists in medium 2. If a third material is brought within micro- or nano-scale distances d from the first material, coupling of the evanescent waves between these objects enables photon tunneling across the gap. The Poynting vector in the gap then has a nonzero normal component, indicating energy transfer between the hot and cold object

Fig.3 (a) Spectral intensity and (b) apparent temperature for a semiconductor with a bandgap energy of E_g= 0.2 eV at a temperature of 300 K under varying chemical potential m. Above the bandgap a positive chemical potential, which corresponds to a forward bias of a p-n junction, is associated with greater photon emission, and the semiconductor therefore appears “hotter” in this spectral region. A negative chemical potential, corresponding to a reverse bias of a p-n junction, reduces photon emission and makes the material appear “colder.”

Fig.4 Entropy content of thermal radiation (solid lines) compared to that of conduction (horizontal dashed line). Blackbody radiation has a higher entropy content than conduction, as evidenced by the higher values over the whole photon energy spectrum. Low-frequency radiation, however, has much higher entropy content than high frequency radiation. This can also be modified by introducing a chemical potential, which can lower the entropy content below that of conduction if m>0

Fig.5 Band diagrams for radiative thermoelectric energy converters (RTECs) including (a) thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cell, (b) thermoradiative (TR) cell, (c) electroluminescent (EL) refrigerator, and (d) negative electroluminescent (NEL) refrigerator. For each device, the split between the electron and hole quasi-Fermi levels E_f,e–E_f,h corresponds to the bias voltage multiplied by the charge of an electron, qV. Electron-hole pairs are generated (destroyed) by net photon absorption (emission) with energy

ℏ ω

above the bandgap for TPV and NEL (TR and EL) devices. The corresponding electron and hole flows are shown along the valence and conduction bands E_v and E_c

Fig.6 Plot of current density (J) versus bias voltage (V) for each radiative thermoelectric energy converter. The case of thermal equilibrium is shown by the black curve through the origin. If the diode is exposed to a warmer environment and receives net radiation, the curve shifts down and may operate as a thermophotovoltaic device. Applying a high enough voltage in this condition changes the direction of net thermal radiation to operate as an electroluminescent refrigerator. If the diode is exposed to a colder environment and emits net radiation, the curve shifts up and may operate as a thermoradiative device. Similarly, applying sufficient voltage will change the radiative heat flow direction and become a negative electroluminescent refrigerator

Fig.7 (a) Interplay of loss mechanisms in TPV devices and (b) effect of different loss types on near-field power enhancement over the far-field value P_FFfor broadband Tungsten and narrowband optimized Drude emitters. The combination of radiative, electrical, and thermal losses can significantly degrade performance, and these also include feedback mechanisms that further reduce power output. In (b), the TPV cell is cooled by convection with the free-stream temperature and convection coefficient shown in the graph, and it is modeled with a surface recombination velocity S_e as indicated. The Drude emitter only outperforms the Tungsten emitter at very small gap distances when electrical and thermal losses are not considered. (Reprinted figure from Bernardi et al. [72], under Creative Commons CC-BY license.)

Fig.8 Thermoradiative device tradeoff between efficiency and power density for a thin-film InSb cell at 500 K emitting to an environment at 300 K. The black dash-dot line indicates far-field radiation between the InSb cell and a blackbody environment. The solid red line shows the far-field performance when the environment is replaced by a fictitious narrowband selective emitter/absorber for low frequencies just above the bandgap. The blue dashed line is for near-field operation with a gap distance of 100 nm and a CaCO₃ receiver, and the blue dotted line plotted on the right y-axis is for near-field operation with a gap distance of 10 nm and a CaCO₃ receiver. In the far-field, use of a selective receiver increases efficiency due to the higher entropy content of low-frequency photons, but it decreases power density due to reduced total radiation exchange. Operating the device in the near-field regime and choosing a receiver that couples to the cell with surface phonon polariton modes increase the power density substantially while maintaining high efficiencies. (Reprinted figure from Hsu et al. [87], under Creative Commons CC-BY license.)

Fig.9 An electroluminescent refrigerator (a) schematic and (b) maximum refrigeration rate considering Auger recombination and sub-bandgap radiative losses. The p-i-n junction device is GaSb with Ag contacts, and the hotter receiver is Ge mounted on an Ag substrate. The maximum refrigeration rate is obtained by optimizing the operating voltage. At large gap spacing d, the refrigeration rate is a constant at its far-field value where only propagating modes participate in the radiation exchange. At intermediate distances, interference effects cause wavy behavior. Below about half a micron, photon tunneling dominates and the refrigeration rate increases. For these materials, above-bandgap near-field radiation grows more than sub-bandgap phonon polariton parasitic exchange due to the material selection. (Reprinted figure with permission from Elsevier from Liu et al. [100].)

Fig.10 Power density (P) and coefficient of performance (COP) of a negative electroluminescent refrigerator at 300 K at different vacuum gap distances from the cooled surface at 290 K. (a) represents the ideal case with no Auger recombination and no sub-bandgap radiation due to free carriers, but (b) includes these loss mechanisms. Auger recombination does not decrease power density since it takes place in the p-n device and the temperatures are fixed, but it does degrade the COP. Sub-bandgap free carrier radiation requires the device to be operated at higher voltage in the near-field to make up for increased radiation from the p-n device to the cooled object. (Reprinted with permission from Chen et al. [105]. Copyright 2016 by the American Physical Society)

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