Microorganism-derived biological macromolecules for tissue engineering

doi:10.1007/s11684-021-0903-0

Front. Med.

2022, Vol. 16

Issue (3) : 358-377 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-021-0903-0

REVIEW

Microorganism-derived biological macromolecules for tissue engineering

Naser Amini^1,², Peiman Brouki Milan^1,^2,³(

), Vahid Hosseinpour Sarmadi^1,², Bahareh Derakhshanmehr², Ahmad Hivechi^1,⁴, Fateme Khodaei⁵, Masoud Hamidi⁶, Sara Ashraf⁷, Ghazaleh Larijani⁷, Alireza Rezapour^8,⁹(

)

¹. Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1591639675, Iran
². Institutes of Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
³. Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1449614535, Iran
⁴. Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Minnesota, MN 55455, USA
⁵. Burn Research Center, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1591639675, Iran
⁶. Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Paramedicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht 4477166595, Iran
⁷. Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran 1477893855, Iran
⁸. Cellular and Molecular Research Centre, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom 3715835155, Iran
⁹. Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom 3715835155, Iran

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Abstract

According to literature, certain microorganism productions mediate biological effects. However, their beneficial characteristics remain unclear. Nowadays, scientists concentrate on obtaining natural materials from live creatures as new sources to produce innovative smart biomaterials for increasing tissue reconstruction in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The present review aims to introduce microorganism-derived biological macromolecules, such as pullulan, alginate, dextran, curdlan, and hyaluronic acid, and their available sources for tissue engineering. Growing evidence indicates that these materials can be used as biological material in scaffolds to enhance regeneration in damaged tissues and contribute to cosmetic and dermatological applications. These natural-based materials are attractive in pharmaceutical, regenerative medicine, and biomedical applications. This study provides a detailed overview of natural-based biomaterials, their chemical and physical properties, and new directions for future research and therapeutic applications.

Keywords biological macromolecules regenerative medicine tissue engineering exopolysaccharide carbohydrate

Corresponding Author(s): Peiman Brouki Milan,Alireza Rezapour

Just Accepted Date: 26 April 2022 Issue Date: 18 July 2022

Cite this article:

Naser Amini,Peiman Brouki Milan,Vahid Hosseinpour Sarmadi, et al. Microorganism-derived biological macromolecules for tissue engineering[J]. Front. Med., 2022, 16(3): 358-377.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fmd/EN/10.1007/s11684-021-0903-0
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fmd/EN/Y2022/V16/I3/358

Fig.1 Three different pathways of EPS biosynthesis. (1) Wzx/Wzy-dependent pathway, (2) ABC transporter–dependent pathway, (3) synthase-dependent pathway. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [3].

Tab.1 Overview of the important bacterial EPSs concerning monomer composition, biosynthesis pathway, and applications

Fig.2 Chemical structures of certain EPSs. (A) Dextran, (B) curdlan, (C) alginate, (D) pullulan, (E) hyaluronic acid, (F) cellulose.

Tab.2 Microorganism-derived EPSs as functional biopolymers

Tab.3 Sodium alginate properties suggested by the European Pharmacopeia (Eur. Ph.) and the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) [131]

EPS’ type	Additional material	Scaffold type and fabrication technique	Application	Reference
Alginate	Polyurethane and cobalt	A hybrid cobalt-doped alginate/waterborne polyurethane 3D porous scaffold with nano-topology of a “coral reef-like” rough surface via two-step freeze–drying method	Nerve repair	[100]
	Chitosan	Using the lyophilization method, polypyrrole–alginate (PPy–Alg) mix is combined with chitosan to create polypyrrole–alginate (PPy–Alg) conducting scaffold	Bone tissue engineering	[101]
	Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)	Chemically cross-linked alginate networks are created in the PEDOT/Alg scaffold utilizing adipic acid hydrazide as the crosslinker, and PEDOT is generated in situ in the alginate matrix at the same time	A platform for controlling cell behavior	[102]
	Bovine serum albumin and hydroxyapatite nanowires	The freeze–dried hydrogel scaffold is immersed in an aqueous solution of CaCl₂ A dual-network bovine serum albumin/sodium alginate with hydroxyapatite nanowires composite (B-S-H) hydrogel scaffold	Cartilage tissue engineering	[103]
	Poly (caprolactone) and CNC nanoparticles	Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/CaAlg nanofibers are successfully produced using hybrid electrospinning	Wound healing	[104]
	Cardiac ECM and chitosan	Using freeze–drying method, cardiac tissue is prepared by decellularization technique, and the different concentrations of the solubilized ECM and chitosan/alginate are prepared and finally freeze-dried	Cardiac tissue engineering	[105]
Dextran	β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP)	A dextran nanocomposite hydrogelBy dispersion of β-TCP in the aqueous solution and adding epichlorohydrin (ECH) 12 v/v% as a chemical cross-linking agent	Bone regeneration	[106]
	No	Electrospun dextran nanofibers cross-linked using boric acid	Wound dressing	[107]
	PVA and ciprofloxacin	Core-shell nanofibers are fabricated by emulsion electrospinning from PVA/dextran	As a drug delivery system	[108]
	Cellulose nanocrystal and gelatin	Extrusion-based 3D printing method	This hydrogel is suggested as a 3D bioink for application in tissue repair	[109]
Pullulan	PVA	Aerogel composites are synthesized by impregnating nanofibrous pullulan-PVA scaffolds with hydrophobic silica aerogel	Tissue regeneration	[110]
	Gelatin	Electrospinning	Tissue regeneration	[111]
	Collagen	Hydrogel	Wound healing	[112]
	Polyethyleneglycoldiacrylate (PEGDA) and methacrylic anhydride	Hydrogel; photoinitiator is added to the solution to promote the (meth)acrylic units’ polymerization to PulMA and PEGDA through a radical mechanism	Tissue adhesive scaffold with healing properties	[113]
	Poly (hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxy valerate)/poly(ε-caprolactone)	A multifunctional 3D fibrous scaffold fabricated by a co-electrospinning system	As a drug delivery system for releasing cefuroxime axetil and also for bone regeneration	[114]
HA	Bacterial cellulose (BC)	Cross-linked BC/HA compositesBC/HA composites are prepared by solution impregnation, and a chemical cross-linking is established in the BC/HA system by using 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether	Wound healing	[115]
	ε-polylysine (EPL) as a natural antimicrobial peptide	Electrospinning	Wound healing	[116]
	Hyperbranched PEG	An injectable hydrogel is reported by combining hyperbranched PEG-based multihydrazide macro-crosslinker and aldehyde-functionalized HA (HA-CHO), with gelatin added to increase the cross-linking density	Tissue regeneration	[117]
	γ-poly (glutamic) acid (γ-PGA) and glycidyl methacrylate as the photo-crosslinker	Digital light processing bio printed human chondrocyte-laden poly (γ-glutamic acid)/HA bio-ink	Cartilage tissue engineering	[118]
Bacterial cellulose	ECH as a cross-linking agent	The hydrogel is prepared by solving carboxymethyl-diethyl amino ethyl cellulose (CM-DEAEC) powder in deionized water and adding a cross-linking agent	Drug delivery	[119]
	Graphene	A novel scaffold for culturing neural stem cells (NSCs), three-dimensional bacterial cellulose−graphene foam, which is prepared via in situ bacterial cellulose interfacial polymerization on the skeleton surface of porous graphene foam	Treatment of the neurodegenerative diseases	[120]
	Citric acid as a cross-linking agent	Citric acid cross-linked carboxymethyl cellulose (C3CA) scaffolds are fabricated by a freeze–drying process	Bone tissue engineering application	[121]
	ε-polylysine (ε-PL), mussel-inspired polydopamine (PDA)	BC membranes are coated with PDA by a simple self-polymerization process, followed by treating with different contents of ε-PL	Wound dressing	[122]
	PVA	Composite hydrogel	Substitute for corneal stroma	[123]
Bacteriophages	Carbon	Wild M13 bacteriophage particles are used for CNF electrode modification	Surface modification	[124]
	Polycaprolactone and collagen	Electrospinning	Wound dressing with antibacterial hemostatic dual-function properties	[125]
	Chitosan and alginate	Microencapsulation procedure	Therapeutic phage by oral delivery	[126]
	Alginate and poly ε-caprolactone	A hybrid scaffold consisting of microsized core-sheath struts based on chemically conjugated M13 bacteriophage (phage)/alginate and PCL	Bone tissue regeneration	[127]

Tab.4 Some examples for using exopolysaccharides in the field of tissue engineering

Fig.3 Cells detach from the dextran-based thermoresponsive membrane without using any enzyme. Dextran-allyl isocyanate-ethylamine is a biodegradable, thermoresponsive polymer presented for detaching cells. Above LCST, dextran-allyl isocyanate-ethylamine is hydrophobic, and cells adhere to it. Below LCST, it becomes hydrophilic and nonadhesive to cells. LCST, lower critical solution temperature; T, temperature; TSP, thermosensitive polymer. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [129].

Fig.4 IPC fibers are created and then incorporated into a polysaccharide scaffold. (A) IPC fibers are formed by pulling oppositely charged polyelectrolytes together. (B) Illustration of an IPC fiber gathered with a pair of collecting needles. (C) The IPC fibers are incorporated into the PD to produce a composite scaffold. (D) Lyophilized polysaccharide scaffold. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [77].

Fig.5 3D bioplotting of alginate hydrogels. (A) Schwann cells are first mixed with alginate hydrogels and then bioplotted. (B) Cell-loaded alginate constructs and staining conclusion showing one strand. (C) Using a 100 μm needle for printing 0.5% alginate with poor printability and staining of the cell-loaded gel. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85].

Fig.6 Indirect biofabrication. (A) 3D bioplotter applied to the development of gelatin scaffold. (B) Gelatin construct and bulk gel models. (C) Gelatin scaffold and a close view of this sacrificial framework. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85].

Fig.7 (A) 3D printed model of nano cellulose–alginate scaffold. (B) The scaffold distorts under compression, but (C) returns to its original form after the pressure is completely removed. (D) Bioprinted human ear. (E and F) Sheep meniscus constructs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [130].

Fig.8 (A)(a) Photomicrograph of the composite hydrogels based on HP/PVA produced using a freeze–thawing technique. (b) SEM microphotographs of the HP/PVA hydrogels [90]. (B)(a–c) Synthesis of carboxymethyl pullulan, CMP-TA, and CS-TA. (d) Hydrogel formation from CMP-TAs and CS-TAs via HRP-mediated cross-linking in the presence of H₂O₂ [92]. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [90, 92].

Fig.10 Display of a collagen-like peptide (GPP)₈ on flagella, biomimetic assembly and mineralization of the resultant GPP8 flagella, and BMSCs’ differentiation on the GPP8 flagella film. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [99].

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