Enhancing biomass and ecological sustainability in rice–fish cocropping systems through the induction of functional microbiota with compound biogenic bait

doi:10.1007/s42832-024-0252-4

2024, Vol. 6

Issue (4) : 240252 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42832-024-0252-4

Enhancing biomass and ecological sustainability in rice–fish cocropping systems through the induction of functional microbiota with compound biogenic bait

Yang Zhang¹(

), Ying-Han Liu¹, Dan-Yao Tang¹, Jun Zhang¹, Xi-Yue Zhang¹, Chen-Wei Xu^2,³, Yu-Juan Yuan^2,³, Chuan-Chao Dai¹

¹. Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Microbes and Functional Genomics, Jiangsu Engineering and Technology Research Centre for Industrialization of Microbial Resources, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
². Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Agricultural and Rural Pollution Prevention Technology and Equipment, Nantong 226007, China
³. Nantong College of Science and Technology, Nantong 226007, China

Download: PDF(2696 KB) HTML
Export: BibTeX | EndNote | Reference Manager | ProCite | RefWorks

Abstract

● Compound biological bait can replace commercial bait to ensure fish growth.

● The compound biogenic bait can effectively improve the water and soil environment.

● The key microbiome induced by compound biogenic bait plays an important role.

Traditional commercial aquatic fish bait (CA) is not conducive to the scientific breeding of rice and fish in cocropping systems, and excessive feeding easily causes environmental pollution in rice fields. In this study, an environment-friendly compound biogenic bait (CB) mixed with plant-derived (PB) and animal-derived (AB) baits was proposed. The rice–crucian carp cocropping system was used as the research object, and the soil microorganisms and fish gut microorganisms were sequenced with high throughput, respectively, to verify the effect of CB application and the microbial mechanism underlying its functional effect. The results showed that the AB and PB components in CB maintain the growth of fish by improving the metabolism-related functions of fish gut microbiome and reducing the abundance of intestinal pathogenic bacteria, including Actinomadura. In particular, the PB components induced soil microbiome, such as Pseudonocardia, that participate in soil nutrient cycling and increase dissolved oxygen in water, which is key for improving rice quality and yield. This is the first study to focus on how different bait components drive key microbial communities to regulate animal–plant–environment relationships in the integrated planting and breeding patterns of paddy fields.

Keywords rice soil rice–fish cocropping fish bait high-throughput sequencing microbial community

Corresponding Author(s): Yang Zhang

About author:

#usheng Xing, Yannan Jian and Xiaodan Zhao contributed equally to this work.]]>

Issue Date: 30 May 2024

Cite this article:

Yang Zhang,Ying-Han Liu,Dan-Yao Tang, et al. Enhancing biomass and ecological sustainability in rice–fish cocropping systems through the induction of functional microbiota with compound biogenic bait[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2024, 6(4): 240252.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/sel/EN/10.1007/s42832-024-0252-4
https://academic.hep.com.cn/sel/EN/Y2024/V6/I4/240252

Fig.1 The effects of different bait components on crucian carp, rice, and environmental ecology in the rice–crucian carp cocropping system. (A) Weight gain and enzyme activity of crucian carp. (B) The biomass and quality of the rice plants. (C) Water and soil chemical properties. The letters indicate significant differences among baits determined by Mann?Whitney U tests.

Fig.2 Diversity and variation of gut and soil bacterial communities. (A) The richness (Chao1) and diversity (Shannon) of the bacterial communities in the gut and soil samples of the different bait components. The letters indicate significant differences among baits determined by Mann?Whitney U tests. (B) Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of bacteria in the gut and soil samples.

Fig.3 Analysis of the bacterial community composition and differential taxonomic groups in the gut (A) and soil (B) samples. Relative abundance of bacterial phyla to genera. At the class-to-genus level, only taxa with relative abundances greater than 0.1% were visualized.

Fig.4 Relationships between key bacterial genera in different baits and in crucian carp, rice and water environments. (A) Correlation analysis of key bacterial genera in gut and soil samples with crucian carp weight gain and rice yield. (B) Correlation analysis between key bacterial genera and dissolved oxygen in water in gut and soil samples. The grey shading indicates the 95% confidence interval. (C) The relative abundance of key microbial genera related to biomass in the gut and soil samples from the different bait components. (D) The relative abundance of key bacterial genera related to dissolved oxygen in water in the gut and soil samples from different component baits. The letters indicate significant differences among baits determined by Mann?Whitney U tests.

Fig.5 Functional analysis of key microbial communities. (A) Heat maps of microbial functions associated with different bait components. (B) Microbial functions that are positively correlated with crucian carp weight gain and rice yield. The grey shading indicates the 95% confidence interval.

Fig.6 Biogenic bait enhances the microbial mechanisms of biological growth (crucian carp and rice) and improves the ecological environment (water and soil).

1	M.T., Ahmad, M., Shariff, F., Yusoff, Y.M., Goh, S., Banerjee, 2020. Applications of microalga Chlorella vulgaris in aquaculture. Reviews in Aquaculture12, 328–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12320
2	N., Arias-Jayo, L., Abecia, L., Alonso-Sáez, A., Ramirez-Garcia, A., Rodriguez, M.A., Pardo, 2018. High-fat diet consumption induces microbiota dysbiosis and intestinal inflammation in zebrafish. Microbial Ecology76, 1089–1101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-018-1198-9
3	G.C., Barbee, W.R., McClain, S.K., Lanka, M.J., Stout, 2010. Acute toxicity of chlorantraniliprole to non-target crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) associated with rice–crayfish cropping systems. Pest Management Science66, 996–1001. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1972
4	Y.E., Borre, R.D., Moloney, G., Clarke, T.G., Dinan, J.F., Cryan, 2014. The impact of microbiota on brain and behavior: mechanisms & therapeutic potential. In: Lyte, M., Cryan, J.F., eds. Microbial Endocrinology: The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Health and Disease. New York: Springer, 373–403
5	R.L., Butt, H., Volkoff, 2019. Gut microbiota and energy homeostasis in fish. Frontiers in Endocrinology10, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00009
6	P.D., Cani, C., Knauf, 2016. How gut microbes talk to organs: the role of endocrine and nervous routes. Molecular Metabolism5, 743–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmet.2016.05.011
7	J.M., Chaparro, A.M., Sheflin, D.K., Manter, J.M., Vivanco, 2012. Manipulating the soil microbiome to increase soil health and plant fertility. Biology and Fertility of Soils48, 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-012-0691-4
8	J.Y., Chen, Q.Y., Li, C.Y., Tan, L.Q., Xie, X.J., Yang, Q.L., Zhang, X.Y., Deng, 2023. Effects of enrofloxacin's exposure on the gut microbiota of Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics46, 101077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbd.2023.101077
9	J.R., Cole, Q., Wang, J.A., Fish, B.L., Chai, D.M., McGarrell, Y.N., Sun, C.T., Brown, A., Porras-Alfaro, C.R., Kuske, J.M., Tiedje, 2014. Ribosomal Database Project: data and tools for high throughput rRNA analysis. Nucleic Acids Research42, D633–D642. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt1244
10	W.H., Ding, N.N., Li, W.Z., Ren, L.L., Hu, X., Chen, J.J., Tang, 2013. Effects of improved traditional rice-fish system productivity on field water environment. Acta Automatica Sinica21, 308–314. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1011.2013.00308
11	R.C., Edgar, 2010. Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics26, 2460–2461. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btq461
12	N.K., Fageria, 2007. Yield physiology of rice. Journal of Plant Nutrition30, 843–879. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226510701374831
13	M., Frąc, S.E., Hannula, M., Bełka, M., Jędryczka, 2018. Fungal biodiversity and their role in soil health. Frontiers in Microbiology9, 707. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00707
14	P., Franchini, C., Fruciano, T., Frickey, J.C., Jones, A., Meyer, 2014. The gut microbial community of Midas cichlid fish in repeatedly evolved limnetic-benthic species pairs. PLoS One9, e95027. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095027
15	E.J.C., Goldstein, D.M., Citron, V.A., Peraino, S.A., Cross, 2003. Desulfovibrio desulfuricans bacteremia and review of human Desulfovibrio infections. Journal of Clinical Microbiology41, 2752–2754. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.41.6.2752-2754.2003
16	M., Halwart, M.V., Gupta, 2004. Culture of Fish in Rice Fields. Rome: FAO and The WorldFish Center
17	V., Hlordzi, F.K.A., Kuebutornye, G., Afriyie, E.D., Abarike, Y.S., Lu, S.Y., Chi, M.A., Anokyewaa, 2020. The use of Bacillus species in maintenance of water quality in aquaculture: a review. Aquaculture Reports18, 100503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100503
18	F., Ju, F., Guo, L., Ye, Y., Xia, T., Zhang, 2014. Metagenomic analysis on seasonal microbial variations of activated sludge from a full-scale wastewater treatment plant over 4 years. Environmental Microbiology Reports6, 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-2229.12110
19	S.H., Kim, H.C., Kim, S.H., Choi, W.C., Lee, R.H., Jung, J.H., Hyun, S.H., Kim, J.S., Lee, 2020. Benthic respiration and nutrient release associated with net cage fish and longline oyster aquaculture in the geoje-tongyeong coastal waters in Korea. Estuaries and Coasts43, 589–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-019-00567-5
20	W.W., Kong, S.L., Huang, Z.J., Yang, F.F., Shi, Y.B., Feng, Z., Khatoon, 2020. Fish feed quality is a key factor in impacting aquaculture water environment: evidence from incubator experiments. Scientific Reports10, 187. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-57063-w
21	W.W., Kong, Q.J., Xu, H., Lyu, J., Kong, X., Wang, B.X., Shen, Y.H., Bi, 2023. Sediment and residual feed from aquaculture water bodies threaten aquatic environmental ecosystem: interactions among algae, heavy metals, and nutrients. Journal of Environmental Management326, 116735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116735
22	E., Könönen, W.G., Wade, 2015. Actinomyces and related organisms in human infections. Clinical Microbiology Reviews28, 419–442. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00100-14
23	T., Kotani, Y., Kawashima, H., Yurimoto, N., Kato, Y., Sakai, 2006. Gene structure and regulation of alkane monooxygenases in propane-utilizing Mycobacterium sp. TY-6 and Pseudonocardia sp. TY-7. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 102, 184–192
24	V., Kotrbáček, J., Doubek, J., Doucha, 2015. The chlorococcalean alga Chlorella in animal nutrition: a review. Journal of Applied Phycology27, 2173–2180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-014-0516-y
25	M.G.I., Langille, J., Zaneveld, J.G., Caporaso, D., McDonald, D., Knights, J.A., Reyes, J.C., Clemente, D.E., Burkepile, R.L., Vega Thurber, R., Knight, R.G., Beiko, C., Huttenhower, 2013. Predictive functional profiling of microbial communities using 16S rRNA marker gene sequences. Nature Biotechnology31, 814–821. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.2676
26	X.D., Li, S.L., Dong, Y.Z., Lei, Y.H., Li, 2007. The effect of stocking density of Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis on rice and crab seed yields in rice–crab culture systems. Aquaculture273, 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.10.028
27	S.M., Lin, X.M., Zhou, Y.L., Zhou, W.M., Kuang, Y.J., Chen, L., Luo, F.Y., Dai, 2020. Intestinal morphology, immunity and microbiota response to dietary fibers in largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoide. Fish & Shellfish Immunology103, 135–142.
28	T., Liu, J.W., Xu, R.Q., Tian, X., Quan, 2021a. Enhanced simultaneous nitriﬁcation and denitriﬁcation via adding N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) in integrated floating fixed-film activated sludge process. Biochemical Engineering Journal166, 107884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2020.107884
29	Y.X., Liu, Y., Qin, T., Chen, M.P., Lu, X.B., Qian, X.X., Guo, Y., Bai, 2021b. A practical guide to amplicon and metagenomic analysis of microbiome data. Protein & Cell12, 315–330.
30	Z.J., Liu, W., Zhou, S.T., Li, P., He, G.Q., Liang, J.L., Lv, H., Jin, 2015. Assessing soil quality of gleyed paddy soils with different productivities in subtropical China. CATENA133, 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.05.029
31	S., Louca, L.W., Parfrey, M., Doebeli, 2016. Decoupling function and taxonomy in the global ocean microbiome. Science353, 1272–1277. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf4507
32	S.J., McIlroy, P.H., Nielsen, 2014. The family Saprospiraceae. In: Rosenberg, E., DeLong, E.F., Lory, S., Stackebrandt, E., Thompson, F., eds. The Prokaryotes: Other Major Lineages of Bacteria and the Archaea. 4th ed. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 863–889
33	A., Meijide, C., Gruening, I., Goded, G., Seufert, A., Cescatti, 2017. Water management reduces greenhouse gas emissions in a Mediterranean rice paddy field. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment238, 168–178.
34	J.B., Qi, X.L., Gu, L.B., Ma, Z.G., Qiao, K., Chen, 2013. The research progress on food organism culture and technology utilization in crab seed production in ponds in China. Agricultural Sciences4, 563–569. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2013.410076
35	C., Quast, E., Pruesse, P., Yilmaz, J., Gerken, T., Schweer, P., Yarza, J., Peplies, F.O., Glöckner, 2012. The SILVA ribosomal RNA gene database project: improved data processing and web-based tools. Nucleic Acids Research41, D590–D596. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gks1219
36	D.K., Radhakrishnan, I., Akbarali, B.V., Schmidt, E.M., John, S., Sivanpillai, S.T., Vasunambesan, 2020. Improvement of nutritional quality of live feed for aquaculture: an overview. Aquaculture Research51, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14357
37	T., Rognes, T., Flouri, B., Nichols, C., Quince, F., Mahé, 2016. VSEARCH: a versatile open source tool for metagenomics. PeerJ4, e2584. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2584
38	K., Ruddle, 1982. Traditional integrated farming systems and rural development: the example of ricefield fisheries in Southeast Asia. Agricultural Administration10, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/0309-586X(82)90036-X
39	N.A., Samat, F.M., Yusoff, N.W., Rasdi, M., Karim, 2020. Enhancement of live food nutritional status with essential nutrients for improving aquatic animal health: a review. Animals10, 2457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122457
40	Z.Z., Shen, S.T., Zhong, Y.G., Wang, B.B., Wang, X.L., Mei, R., Li, Y.Z., Ruan, Q.R., Shen, 2013. Induced soil microbial suppression of banana fusarium wilt disease using compost and biofertilizers to improve yield and quality. European Journal of Soil Biology57, 1–8.
41	X., Shi, Z., Luo, F., Chen, C.C., Wei, K., Wu, X.M., Zhu, X., Liu, 2017. Effect of fish meal replacement by Chlorella meal with dietary cellulase addition on growth performance, digestive enzymatic activities, histology and myogenic genes’ expression for crucian carp Carassius auratus. Aquaculture Research48, 3244–3256. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.13154
42	I., Taranu, D.E., Marin, A., Untea, P., Janczyk, M., Motiu, R.D., Criste, W.B., Souffrant, 2012. Effect of dietary natural supplements on immune response and mineral bioavailability in piglets after weaning. Czech Journal of Animal Science57, 332–343. https://doi.org/10.17221/6008-CJAS
43	M., Venkatesh, S., Mukherjee, H., Wang, H.W., Li, K., Sun, A.P., Benechet, Z.J., Qiu, L., Maher, M.R., Redinbo, R.S., Phillips, J.C., Fleet, S., Kortagere, P., Mukherjee, A., Fasano, J., Le Ven, J.K., Nicholson, M.E., Dumas, K.M., Khanna, S., Mani, 2014. Symbiotic bacterial metabolites regulate gastrointestinal barrier function via the xenobiotic sensor PXR and Toll-like receptor 4. Immunity41, 296–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2014.06.014
44	M.L., Wang, X., Xiong, J.J., Liu, C., He, Q.Y., Zhao, 2020. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes evidence for the environmental impact of the cage fish farm in Poyang Lake, China. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology105, 860–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-03042-1
45	L.W., Xi, Q.S., Lu, Y.L., Liu, J.Z., Su, W., Chen, Y.L., Gong, D., Han, Y.X., Yang, Z.M., Zhang, J.Y., Jin, H.K., Liu, X.M., Zhu, S.Q., Xie, 2022. Effects of fish meal replacement with Chlorella meal on growth performance, pigmentation, and liver health of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Animal Nutrition10, 26–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2022.03.003
46	J., Xie, L.L., Hu, J.J., Tang, X., Wu, N.N., Li, Y.G., Yuan, H.S., Yang, J.E., Zhang, S.M., Luo, X., Chen, 2011. Ecological mechanisms underlying the sustainability of the agricultural heritage rice–fish coculture system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America108, E1381–E1387.
47	L., Yan, S.U., Lim, I.H., Kim, 2012. Effect of fermented Chlorella supplementation on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood characteristics, fecal microbial and fecal noxious gas content in growing pigs. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences25, 1742–1747. https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.2012.12352
48	S., Yang, J., Du, J., Luo, Y., Zhou, Y., Long, G., Xu, L., Zhao, Z., Du, T., Yan, 2019. Effects of different diets on the intestinal microbiota and immunity of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Journal of Applied Microbiology127, 1327–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.14405
49	Y., Zhang, M., Chen, Y.Y., Zhao, A.Y., Zhang, D.H., Peng, F., Lu, C.C., Dai, 2021. Destruction of the soil microbial ecological environment caused by the over-utilization of the rice-crayfish co-cropping pattern. Science of the Total Environment788, 147794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147794

[1]

SEL-00252-OF-YZ_suppl_1

Download

[1]	Zhi Yu, Changbae Lee, Dorsaf Kerfahi, Nan Li, Naomichi Yamamoto, Teng Yang, Haein Lee, Guangyin Zhen, Yenan Song, Lingling Shi, Ke Dong. Elevational dynamics in soil microbial co-occurrence: Disentangling biotic and abiotic influences on bacterial and fungal networks on Mt. Seorak[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2024, 6(4): 240246-.
[2]	Zhifu Pei, Mei Hong. Fungal residues were more sensitive to nitrogen addition than bacterial residues in a meadow grassland soil[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2024, 6(3): 230216-.
[3]	George P. Stamou, Nikolaos Monokrousos, Anastasia Papapostolou, Effimia M. Papatheodorou. Recurring heavy rainfall resulting in degraded-upgraded phases in soil microbial networks that are reflected in soil functioning[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2023, 5(3): 220161-.
[4]	Haixin Zhang, Yimei Huang, Shaoshan An, Quanchao Zeng, Baorong Wang, Xuejuan Bai, Qian Huang. *Decay stages and meteorological factors affect microbial community during leaf litter in situ* decomposition**[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2023, 5(3): 220160-.
[5]	Yixin Sun, Xiaofang Du, Yingbin Li, Xu Han, Shuai Fang, Stefan Geisen, Qi Li. Database and primer selections affect nematode community composition under different vegetations of Changbai Mountain[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2023, 5(1): 142-150.
[6]	Gaidi Ren, Guangfei Wang, Dejie Guo, Chao Lu, Yan Ma. Changes of microbiome in response to sugars in a wilt pathogen-infested soil[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2023, 5(1): 46-65.
[7]	Qirui An, Yunyang Li, Na Zheng, Jincai Ma, Shengnan Hou, Siyu Sun, Sujing Wang, Pengyang Li, Xiaoqian Li, Chunmei Zhao. Influence of cadmium and copper mixtures to rhizosphere bacterial communities[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2023, 5(1): 94-107.
[8]	Renjun Zhou, Hao Wang, Dongdong Wei, Shenzheng Zeng, Dongwei Hou, Shaoping Weng, Jianguo He, Zhijian Huang. Bacterial and eukaryotic community interactions might contribute to shrimp culture pond soil ecosystem at different culture stages[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2022, 4(2): 119-130.
[9]	Yifei Sun, Meiling Sun, Guowei Chen, Xin Chen, Baoguo Li, Gang Wang. Aggregate sizes regulate the microbial community patterns in sandy soil profile[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2021, 3(4): 313-327.
[10]	Haifeng Xiao, Wenting Wang, Shangwen Xia, Zhipeng Li, Jianmin Gan, Xiaodong Yang. Distributional patterns of soil nematodes in relation to environmental variables in forest ecosystems[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2021, 3(2): 115-124.
[11]	Jing Zhang, Changxin Quan, Lingling Ma, Guowei Chu, Zhanfeng Liu, Xuli Tang. Plant community and soil properties drive arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity: A case study in tropical forests[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2021, 3(1): 52-62.
[12]	Chen Zhu, Ning Ling, Ling Li, Xiaoyu Liu, Michaela A. Dippold, Xuhui Zhang, Shiwei Guo, Yakov Kuzyakov, Qirong Shen. Compositional variations of active autotrophic bacteria in paddy soils with elevated CO₂ and temperature[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2020, 2(4): 295-307.
[13]	Gabriela Montes de Oca-Vásquez, Frank Solano-Campos, Bernal Azofeifa-Bolaños, Amelia Paniagua-Vasquez, José Vega-Baudrit, Antonio Ruiz-Navarro, Rubén López-Mondéjar, Felipe Bastida. *Microhabitat heterogeneity associated with Vanilla* spp. and its influences on the microbial community of leaf litter and soil**[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2020, 2(3): 195-208.
[14]	Eva Högfors-Rönnholm, Stephan Christel, Tom Lillhonga, Sten Engblom, Peter Österholm, Mark Dopson. Biodegraded peat and ultrafine calcium carbonate result in retained metals and higher microbial diversities in boreal acid sulfate soil[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2020, 2(2): 120-130.
[15]	Shan Xu, Weixin Geng, Emma J. Sayer, Guoyi Zhou, Ping Zhou, Chengshuai Liu. Soil microbial biomass and community responses to experimental precipitation change: A meta-analysis[J]. Soil Ecology Letters, 2020, 2(2): 93-103.

Viewed

Full text

Abstract

Cited

Shared

Discussed