Crop residues: applications of lignocellulosic biomass in the context of a biorefinery

doi:10.1007/s11708-021-0730-7

Front. Energy

2022, Vol. 16

Issue (2) : 224-245 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11708-021-0730-7

REVIEW ARTICLE

Crop residues: applications of lignocellulosic biomass in the context of a biorefinery

Maria Carolina ANDRADE, Caio de Oliveira GORGULHO SILVA, Leonora Rios de SOUZA MOREIRA, Edivaldo Ximenes FERREIRA FILHO(

)

Laboratory of Enzymology, Department of Cellular Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil

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Abstract

Interest in lignocellulosic biomass conversion technologies has increased recently because of their potential to reduce the dependency on non-renewable feedstocks. Residues from a variety of crops are the major source of lignocellulose, which is being produced in increasingly large quantities worldwide. The commercial exploitation of crop residues as feedstocks for biorefineries which could be used to produce a variety of goods such as biofuels, biochemicals, bioplastics, and enzymes is an attractive approach not only for adding value to residues but also for providing renewable products required by the expanding bioeconomy market. Moreover, the implementation of biorefineries in different regions has the potential to add value to the specific crop residues produced in the region. In this review, several aspects of crop residue application in biorefineries are discussed, including the role of crop residues in the bioeconomy and circular economy concepts, the main technical aspects of crop residue conversion in biorefineries, the main crop residues generated in different regions of the world and their availability, the potential value-added bioproducts that can be extracted or produced from each crop residue, and the major advantages and challenges associated with crop residue utilization in biorefineries. Despite their potential, most biomass refining technologies are not sufficiently advanced or financially viable. Several technical obstacles, especially with regard to crop residue collection, handling, and pre-treatment, prevent the implementation of biorefineries on a commercial scale. Further research is needed to resolve these scale-up-related challenges. Increased governmental incentives and bioeconomic strategies are expected to boost the biorefinery market and the cost competitiveness of biorefinery products.

Keywords crop residue biorefinery bioproduct biomass circular bioeconomy enzyme

Corresponding Author(s): Edivaldo Ximenes FERREIRA FILHO

About author:

Tongcan Cui and Yizhe Hou contributed equally to this work.

Online First Date: 30 March 2021 Issue Date: 25 May 2022

Cite this article:

Maria Carolina ANDRADE,Caio de Oliveira GORGULHO SILVA,Leonora Rios de SOUZA MOREIRA, et al. Crop residues: applications of lignocellulosic biomass in the context of a biorefinery[J]. Front. Energy, 2022, 16(2): 224-245.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/10.1007/s11708-021-0730-7
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fie/EN/Y2022/V16/I2/224

Fig.1 Use of crop residues in the context of biorefineries and circular bioeconomy.

Fig.2 Lignocellulose-degrading enzymes from microorganisms and their biotechnological applications.

Fig.3 An overview of the main agricultural crops produced in the world.

Plantations	Leading producers	Global production/t	Total global wastes/t	Residues	Cellulose/%	Hemicellulose/%	Lignin/%	References
Cotton	China (25%), India (22%), USA (15%), Pakistan (8%), Brazil (5%)	6.54E+ 07	9.81E+ 07	Cotton sheets, cotton stalks	80	*	*	[37–39]
Rice	China (19%), India (18%), Indonesia (8%), Bangladesh (6%), Vietnam (4%)	7.41E+ 08	1.10E+ 07	Rice straw, rice hulls	25.1–38	27–37.1	8–15.2	[16,37,38,40]
Coffee	Brazil (33%), Vietnam (16%), Colombia (8%), Indonesia (7%), Ethiopia (5%)	9.22E+ 06	3.67E+ 06	Coffee husks, coffee pulp, wastewater	37.2	24.9	*	[37,38,41]
Sugarcane	Brazil (41%), India (18%), China (6%), Thailand (5%), Pakistan (3%)	1.89E+ 09	4.73E+ 08	Sugarcane bagasse, cane straw	43 –39	26 – 30	22–25	[16,37,38,40]
Barley	Russia (20%), Germany (11%), France (11%), Australia (11%), Ukraine (10%)	1.41E+ 08	1.78E+ 06	Barley straw	39.6	24.7	17.2	[16,37,38]
Beans	Myanmar (19%), India (14%), Brazil (10%), USA (5%), United Republic of Tanzania (4%)	2.68E+ 07	3.66E+ 05	Peel beans	*	*	*	[37,38]
Orange	Brazil (24%), China (12%), India (10%), USA (7%), Mexico (6%)	7.32E+ 07	4.29E+ 07	Orange peel, orange bagasse	*	*	*	[37,38]
Apple	China (50%), USA (5%), Poland (4%), Turkey (3%), India (3%)	8.93E+ 07	5.85E+ 07	Apple pomace	*	*	*	[37,38,42]
Corn	USA (36%), China (22%), Brazil (6%), Argentina (4%), Mexico (3%)	1.06E+ 09	7.49E+ 08	Corncobs, corn straw	37.3	25.5	13.8 – 16.7	[15,16,37,38,43]
Soybean	USA (35%), Brazil (28%), Argentina (17%), India (4%), China (3%)	3.35E+ 08	2.98E+ 08	Soybean hull	25	11.9	17.6	[16,37,38]
Sorghum	USA (19%), Nigeria (11%), Sudan (10%), Mexico (8%), Ethiopia (7%)	6.39E+ 07	3.54E+ 07	Sorghum straw	36	18	15.5	[16,37,38]
Wheat	China (17%), India (12%), Russia (10%), USA (8%), Canada (3%)	7.69E+ 08	1.13E+ 07	Wheat straw	35–37.3	24–28.7	17.8–25	[16,37,38,40]
Grape	China (19%), Italy (11%), USA (9%), France (8%), Spain (8%)	7.74E+ 07	1.24E+ 07	Grape pomace	*	*	*	[37,38]

Tab.1 Correlation between the annual production of different crops and the generation of crop residues

Fig.4 An overview of crop residue applications in lignocellulose-based biorefineries.

Residue	Application	Conversion process	Reference
Coffee silverskin	Production of levulinic acid	Water-soluble phenolics were extracted from CS through hydrothermal pre-treatment in a microwave reactor. Pretreated CS was then subjected to diluted hydrochloric acid treatment in a microwave reactor with varying biomass loadings, acid concentrations and reaction temperature/time to produce levulinic acid	[79]
Coffee silverskin	Production of a-amylase	SSF process using a fungal strain Neurospora crassa CFR 308	[80]
Coffee wastes	Production of biogas	Alkaline and acid pre-treatments of a mixture composed of coffee seed skin, seed refuse and coffee product refuse followed by the inoculum of cow and chicken manure and an anaerobic sludge taken from a domestic water treatment system	[89]
Coffee wastewater	Production of bioethanol	Batch fermentation using Hanseniaspora uvarum UFLA CAF76 as inoculum in ground coffee pulp mixed with coffee wastewater	[90]
Coffee husks	Production of endoglucanase	Steam-exploded coffee husks were used as substrate for cellulase production using Rhizopus stolonifer CFR 307 under SSF. Fermentation parameters (pH, moisture and fermentation time) were optimized through response surface methodology (RSM). Enzymes thus produced were applied in ethanol production from coffee husks and as additive in detergent formulation	[86]
Coffee husks	Production of gibberellic acid	SSF and SmF fermentation of alkali pretreated coffee husks and cassava bagasse (7:3, dry wt) employing Gibberella fujokuroi LPB-06	[91]
Coffee husks	Production of carotenoids	Alkaline-pretreated coffee husks were used as substrate for Rhodotorula mucilaginosa CCMA0156 as carotenoid-producing strain under SmF. Intracellular carotenoids were extracted with different organic solvents	[92]
Coffee husks	Production of carotenoids		[92]
Coffee husks	Production of xylanase and cellulase	Multispecies SSF process applying a specialized consortium of microorganisms (Pseudoxanthomonas taiwanensis, Sphingobacterium composti, Cyberlindnera jardinii and Barnettozyma californica among others)	[81]
Coffee pulp	Cultivation of mushrooms	Six strains of Pleurotus were grown in a mixture of coffee pulp and wheat straw	[93]
Coffee pulp	Production of pectinase	SSF process employing Aspergillus niger AW96 and SmF process employing A. niger AW99	[82]
Spent coffee ground	Production of biodiesel	Oil was extracted from SCG with hexane. Oil transesterification reaction was performed with ethanol or methanol via enzymatic catalysis with three commercial enzymes (Lipozymes RM 1M, TL 100L, and CALBL)	[73]

Tab.2 Biorefinery applications of coffee residues

Residue	Application	Conversion process	Reference
Soybean hulls	Production of protease, b- amylase, a-amylase	SSF process using a fungal strain Penicillium spp. LEMIA 38221 in different conditions (pH, temperature and substrate concentration)	[98]
Soybean hulls	Production of ethanol	Soybean residue was pretreated with dilute H₂SO₄ and subjected to separate hydrolysis and fermentation employing commercial cellulase cocktails (a mixture of C-Tec 2 and Viscozyme L) and S. cerevisiae (wild-type strain or the KCCM 1129 strain adapted to high galactose concentrations)	[94]
Soybean hulls and citric pulp	Production of gibberellic acid	SSF performed with Fusarium moniliforme LPB 03 optimized for physical and chemical conditions (pH, initial humidity and composition of nutritive solution)	[97]
Soybean oil deodorizer distillate	Production of biodiesel	CaO obtained from calcined duck eggshell was used as catalyst for the esterification of SODD with methanol	[19]
Soybean straw	Production of biogas	Solid-state anaerobic digestion (SS-AD) of soybean processing waste (consisting of soybeans, soybean straw and soybean oil extraction residues) and hay with the effluent from a mesophilic liquid anaerobic digester as inoculum	[102]
Okara	Production of b-glucosidase	Fresh and heat-treated okara were subjected to SSF process using Saccharomyces cerevisiae r.f. bayanus	[96]
Okara	Production of probiotic	A probiotic creamy sauce was produced with Lactobacillus acidophilus LA3-fermented okara flour plus soymilk and different types of gelling components	[104]
Okara	Production of citric acid	Solid-state mixed fermentation of okara with Aspergillus terreus (involved in okara saccharification) and Aspergillus niger (responsible for citric acid production)	[105]
Soybean meal	Production of lipase	SSF process applying DCCR design to evaluate spore concentration, cultivation and humidity parameters affecting the enzymatic production by Penicillium sp. S4	[99]
Soybean meal	Production of cellulase	Cellulase production by Chaetomium globosum BCC5776 was performed under SmF conditions in optimized medium containing 1% soybean meal, 1% empty palm fruit bunch and 2% Avicel®. Home-made enzyme system was supplemented with commercial b-glucosidase (Novozyme® 188) and hemicellulases (Accellerase® XY) for the efficient hydrolysis of alkaline-pretreated rice straw	[106]
Soybean meal	Production of cellulase		[106]
Soybean residues	Production of bioethanol	Two residues, i.e. skim (protein-rich fraction) and insoluble fiber (carbohydrate-rich fraction), generated from soybean oil extraction were used as additives in dry-grind corn fermentation for ethanol production. The addition of skim and/or insoluble fiber enhanced ethanol production by decreasing the corn fermentation time, increased corn distillers oil recovery from this tillage and increased the protein content while reducing fiber and oil contents of distillers dried grains	[107]

Tab.3 Biorefinery applications of soybean residues

Residue	Application	Conversion process	Reference
Sugarcane bagasse and citrus residues	Production of glycosyl hydrolases	RSM methodology to select the best enzyme inducing biomass (sugarcane bagasse, soybean bran, wheat bran, apple bagasse or citrus bagasse) using Annulohypoxylon stygium in SmF process	[127]
Sugarcane bagasse	Production of xylanases	Pretreated SCB was used as substrate for Aspergillus terreus in SmF	[128]
Sugarcane bagasse	Production of xylanase	SmF process employing pretreated SCB and Emericella nidulans	[13]
Sugarcane bagasse	Production of endoglucanase	Enzymatically liquefied sugarcane bagasse was used as substrate for endoglucanase production by Aspergillus niger A12. The produced enzymes were then applied to liquefy sugarcane bagasse for later use as substrate for enzyme production in a closed-loop strategy	[12]
Sugarcane bagasse	Production of cellulase, b-glucosidase and xylanase	Mathematical model describes enzyme production by Trichoderma harzianum P4P11 through variation of substrate concentration, cell growth and induction of different enzyme classes (cellulases, b-glucosidases and xylanases) using steam-exploded and alkali-pretreated SCB	[116]
Sugarcane bagasse	Production of biobutanol	Biorefinery model was created based on Aspen Plus® simulations to produce sugar, ethanol and butanol (25:50:25 configuration) employing strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum or mutant strain Clostridium beijerinckii BA101	[126]
Sugarcane bagasse	Production of levulinic acid	Biorefinery model that fractionates SCB and wheat straw using liquid hot water pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis with commercial cocktail Cellic® CTec2	[119]
Sugarcane straw	Production of bioethanol	Application of the semi-mechanistic model using SS hydrothermal pretreated with and without alkali delignification with 4% NaOH and enzymatic hydrolysis employing Cellic® CTec2	[129]
Sugarcane straw	Production of lignin	Lignin with high degree of purity (>98%) and low sulfur content (<2%) was extracted from sugarcane straw through SO₂-ethanol-water fractionation at different temperatures (135°C–160°C)	[123]
Sugarcane straw	Production of xylitol	The hemicellulosic hydrolysate obtained through dilute acid pre-treatment of sugarcane straw with 1% H₂SO₄ was fermented with Candida guillermondii FT20037 using three nutritional supplementation conditions	[64]

Tab.4 Biorefinery applications of sugarcane residues

Tab.5 Biorefinery applications of corn residues

Tab.6 Biorefinery applications of wheat residues

Residue	Application	Conversion process	Reference
Rice straw	Production of cellulase	SmF process employing milled straw treated with 1.25% or 5% NH₄OH using Trichoderma reesei ATCC-66589 and Humicola insolens ATCC-26908 as enzyme producers	[158]
Rice straw	Production of biochar	Straw and rice husks of two different varieties (Koshihikari and IR50404) were exposed to high pyrolysis temperatures (300°C–800°C)	[166]
Rice straw	Production of biobutanol	The enzymatic hydrolysate of non-pretreated rice straw was used as carbon source for ABE fermentation with Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum N1-4 for biobutanol production. High initial cell concentration under non-sterile conditions achieved the similar butanol yields obtained under sterile conditions	[168]
Rice straw	Production of bioelectricity	Impregnation of rice straw with FeCl₃ solution (10% w/v) followed by heat pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis with enzyme pool from Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma reesei. The fuel cell reactor was loaded with the diluted hydrolysate in an anode compartment including dissolved air as the final electron acceptor	[169]
Rice residues (straw and husk)	Production of nanosilica	Rice residues were burned until ash generation and treated with sodium hydroxide. Sodium silicate was precipitated with HCl or H₂SO₄, washed, dried and burned at 575°C to obtain nanosilica powder	[167]
Rice straw	Production of lignin-degrading enzymes	Myrothecium roridum LG7 was employed for the biological pre-treatment (delignification) of a mixture of rice straw and herbaceous weed Parthenium sp. under SSF condition. Partially delignified biomass was more susceptible to saccharification with commercial cellulase enzymes (Accellerase® 1500) than untreated biomass	[162]
Rice husk	Production of lignin, cellulose nanocrystals and silica	Sequential acid leaching (HCl) and alkaline extraction (NaOH) were used to recover high purity lignin from rice husks. The remaining cellulose-rich solids were bleached with chlorine free treatment to yield cellulose nanocrystals. Silica was also recovered from the aqueous supernatant of lignin extraction	[170]

Tab.7 Biorefinery applications of rice residues

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