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Frontiers of Agricultural Science and Engineering

ISSN 2095-7505

ISSN 2095-977X(Online)

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Front. Agr. Sci. Eng.    2021, Vol. 8 Issue (1) : 148-158    https://doi.org/10.15302/J-FASE-2020372
REVIEW
NEW ZEALAND DAIRY FARM SYSTEMS AND KEY ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Jiafa LUO(), Stewart LEDGARD
AgResearch Ruakura, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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Abstract

• NZ dairy farming systems are based on year-round grazing of perennial pasture (ryegrass/white clover).

• Milk production per hectare has increased by about 29% with increased use of externally-sourced feeds over the last two decades.

• Externally-sourced feeds with a low protein concentration can potentially reduce N2O emissions and N leaching per unit of production.

• Systems analysis is important for evaluating mitigations to minimize trade-offs between environmental impacts.

This paper provides an overview of the range of dairy pasture grazing systems used in New Zealand (NZ), the changes with increased inputs over time and associated key environmental effects including nitrogen (N) leaching and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. NZ dairy farming systems are based on year-round grazing and seasonal milk production on perennial ryegrass/clover pasture where cows are rotationally grazed in paddocks. There was an increase in stocking rate on NZ dairy farms from 2.62 cows ha−1 in 2000/2001 to 2.84 cows ha−1 in 2015/2016. During the same period annual milk solids production increased from 315 to 378 kg·yr−1 per cow. This performance has coincided with an increase in N fertilizer use (by ~ 30%) and a twofold increase in externally-sourced feeds. Externally-sourced feeds with a low protein concentration (e.g., maize silage) can increase the efficiency of N utilization and potentially reduce N losses per unit of production. Off-paddock facilities (such as standoff or feed pads) are often used to restrict grazing during very wet winter conditions. A systems analysis of contrasting dairy farms in Waikato (largest NZ dairying region) indicates that the increased input would result in an increase in per-cow milk production but little change in efficiency of milk production from a total land use perspective. This analysis also shows that the increased inputs caused an 11% decrease in N footprint (i.e., N emissions per unit of milk production) and a 2% increase in C footprint (i.e., greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per unit of milk production).
Keywords dairy farms      environmental impacts      grazing systems      intensification      mitigation     
Corresponding Author(s): Jiafa LUO   
Just Accepted Date: 03 December 2020   Online First Date: 25 December 2020    Issue Date: 29 March 2021
 Cite this article:   
Jiafa LUO,Stewart LEDGARD. NEW ZEALAND DAIRY FARM SYSTEMS AND KEY ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS[J]. Front. Agr. Sci. Eng. , 2021, 8(1): 148-158.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/10.15302/J-FASE-2020372
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/Y2021/V8/I1/148
Item 2000/2001 2005/2006 2009/2010 2015/2016
Dairy statistics
?Dairy herds (no.) 13,892 11,883 11,691 11,918
?Average herd size (no. cows) 251 322 376 419
?Average stocking rate (cows ha−1) 2.62 2.74 2.81 2.85
?Average milksolids production (kg·ha−1) 825 907 912 1063
DairyNZ farm systems*
?Low (Systems 1 and 2) (%) 72 51 42 36
?Medium (System 3) (%) 17 32 36 43
?High (Systems 4 and 5) (%) 12 17 22 21
Tab.1  Trends in New Zealand dairy farming[?3,?21–?23]
Fig.1  Temporal changes in rate of fertilizer N and P use on New Zealand average dairy farms. Based on farm survey data from DairyNZ DairyBase.
Fig.2  Temporal changes in annual amount of feed consumption from externally-sourced feeds on New Zealand average dairy farms. Data are expressed on a per-hectare on-farm basis. PKE, palm kernel expeller. Based on farm survey data from DairyNZ DairyBase.
Item 2000 2005 2010 2017
Structures used (% of all dairy farms)
?Feed pads (%) <1 7 27 30
?Standoff pads (%) 0 1 22 25
?Loose housed barns (%) 0 <1 2 3
?Free-stall barns (%) 0 0 <1 1
Effluent management
?Two ponds and discharge to water (%) 50 20 12* 12*
Land application
?Sump (%) 20 20 15 10
?Storage pond (%) 30 60 75 88
Solid separation
?Mechanica (%) 0 <1 1 2
?Passive (Weeping wall) (%) 0 <1 7 10
Tab.2  Trends in the estimated use of off-paddock structures and effluent management systems on New Zealand dairy farms since 2000 (adapted from Rollo et al.?[11?]?)
Item Low Medium High
Farm area (ha) 151 145 184
Cows ha−1 3.11 2.95 3.78
Milk (L per cow) 3753 4154 5112
Milk (kg FPCM ha−1) 14,405 14,726 23,066
Feed externally-sourced (kg·yr−1DM per cow)
?Maize silage 67 192 339
?Concentrate/wheat grain 21 56 38
?Palm kernel expeller 152 377 734
?Pasture silage 36 98 159
?Soybean meal 0 0 170
?Other externally-sourced feeds* 16 38 272
Fertilizer use on-farm (per year)
?Fertilizer-N (kg·ha−1) 123 122 156
?Fertilizer-P (kg·ha−1) 22 18 21
Tab.3  Average animal, farm and resource use parameters in dairy farm systems in Waikato, New Zealand in 2015/2016 according to level of externally-sourced feeds (farm survey data from DairyNZ DairyBase)
Item Low Medium High
Farm Inputs
?Externally-sourced feeds 22 48 179
?Fertilizer 123 122 156
?Atmosphere (N2 fixation, rainfall) 134 105 93
Farm Outputs
?Milk and meat 93 95 147
?Ammonia volatilization 59 55 74
?Denitrification 4 5 8
?Leaching 31 31 49
?Farm gate N surplus (N inputs minus product-N) 186 180 281
?N use efficiency on-farm (%) 34 35 35
?N use efficiency on- and off-farm (%) 30 30 28
Off-farm (units of on-farm area equivalent)
Inputs
?Fertilizer N input to externally-sourced feed crops 5 14 43
?Other atmospheric N inputs (externally-sourced feed crops) 2 2 31
Outputs
?Leaching from externally-sourced feed crops 2 5 14
Tab.4  Average N budget (kg·ha−1·yr−1 N) on dairy farms in Waikato, New Zealand in 2015/2016 according to level of externally-sourced feeds (Based on average farm survey data from DairyNZ DairyBase and N flows analyzed using the OVERSEER model [?45?])
Item Low Medium High High+ housing
N footprint (g N kg−1 FPCM)
?NOx 0.12 0.14 0.19 0.19
?N2O 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.21
?NH3 3.30 3.01 2.41 4.10
?N to water 2.63 2.76 2.83 2.16
?Sum of reactive N 6.31 6.14 5.62 6.66
C footprint (g CO2-equivalent kg−1 FPCM)
?CO2 0.079 0.086 0.221 0.221
?N2O 0.122 0.109 0.089 0.111
?CH4 0.538 0.512 0.441 0.450
?SUM 0.739 0.707 0.751 0.782
Tab.5  Average N and C footprints of milk in dairy farm systems in Waikato, New Zealand in 2015/2016 according to level of externally-sourced feeds
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