|
|
Ethereum smart contract security research: survey and future research opportunities |
Zeli WANG1,2, Hai JIN1,2, Weiqi DAI1,3,4( ), Kim-Kwang Raymond CHOO5, Deqing ZOU1,3,4 |
1. National Engineering Research Center for Big Data Technology and System, Services Computing Technology and System Lab, Clusters and Grid Computing Lab, Hubei Engineering Research Center on Big Data Security,Wuhan 430074, China 2. School of Computer Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,Wuhan 430074, China 3. School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,Wuhan 430074, China 4. Shenzhen Huazhong University of Science and Technology Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China 5. Department of Information Systems and Cyber Security, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249-0631, USA |
|
|
Abstract Blockchain has recently emerged as a research trend, with potential applications in a broad range of industries and context. One particular successful Blockchain technology is smart contract, which is widely used in commercial settings (e.g., high value financial transactions). This, however, has security implications due to the potential to financially benefit froma security incident (e.g., identification and exploitation of a vulnerability in the smart contract or its implementation). Among, Ethereum is the most active and arresting. Hence, in this paper, we systematically review existing research efforts on Ethereum smart contract security, published between 2015 and 2019. Specifically, we focus on how smart contracts can be maliciously exploited and targeted, such as security issues of contract program model, vulnerabilities in the program and safety consideration introduced by program execution environment. We also identify potential research opportunities and future research agenda.
|
Keywords
smart contract
security
blockchain
vulnerability
unreliable data
|
Corresponding Author(s):
Weiqi DAI
|
Just Accepted Date: 30 December 2019
Issue Date: 19 October 2020
|
|
1 |
D Chaum. Blind signatures for untraceable payments. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Annual International Cryptology Conference. 1982, 199–203
|
2 |
D Chaum, A Fiat, M Naor. Untraceable electronic cash. In: Proceedings of the 8th Annual International Cryptology Conference. 1988, 319–327
https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-34799-2_25
|
3 |
B Schoenmakers. Security aspects of the ecashtm payment system. In: State of the Art in Applied Cryptography. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1998, 338–352
https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-49248-8_16
|
4 |
R L Rivest. Peppercoin micropayments. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Financial Cryptography. 2004, 2–8
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-27809-2_2
|
5 |
N Satoshi. Bitcoin: a peer-to-peer electronic cash system. 2008
|
6 |
F Tschorsch, B Scheuermann. Bitcoin and beyond: a technical survey on decentralized digital currencies. IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, 2016, 18(3): 2084–2123
https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2016.2535718
|
7 |
M Conti, E S Kumar, C Lal, S Ruj. A survey on security and privacy issues of bitcoin. IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, 2018, 20(4): 3416–3452
https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2018.2842460
|
8 |
M C K Khalilov, A Levi. A survey on anonymity and privacy in bitcoinlike digital cash systems. IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, 2018, 20(3): 2543–2585
https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2018.2818623
|
9 |
M A Ferrag, M Derdour, M Mukherjee, A Derhab, L Maglaras, H Janicke. Blockchain technologies for the internet of things: research issues and challenges. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 2018, 6(2): 2188–2204
|
10 |
L S Sankar, M Sindhu, M Sethumadhavan. Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications. In: Proceedings of the 4th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems. 2017, 1–5
|
11 |
G T Nguyen, K Kim. A survey about consensus algorithms used in blockchain. Journal of Information Processing Systems, 2018, 14(1): 101–128
|
12 |
L Zhu, Y Wu, K Gai, K R Choo. Controllable and trustworthy blockchain-based cloud data management. Future Generation Computer system, 2019, 91: 527–535
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2018.09.019
|
13 |
C Esposito, A D Santis, G Tortora, H Chang, K R Choo. Blockchain: a panacea for healthcare cloud-based data security and privacy. IEEE Cloud Computing, 2018, 5(1): 31–37
https://doi.org/10.1109/MCC.2018.011791712
|
14 |
K Gai, K R Choo, L Zhu. Blockchain-enabled reengineering of cloud Datacenters. IEEE Cloud Computing, 2018, 5(6): 21–25
https://doi.org/10.1109/MCC.2018.064181116
|
15 |
C Lin, D He, X Huang, K R Choo, A V Vasilakos. Bsein: a blockchainbased secure mutual authentication with fine-grained access control system for industry 4.0. Journel of Network and Computer Applications, 2018, 116: 42–52
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnca.2018.05.005
|
16 |
M Conoscenti, A Vetro, J C De Martin. Blockchain for the internet of things: a systematic literature review. In: Proceedings of the 13th IEEE/ACS International Conference of Computer Systems and Applications. 2016, 1–6
https://doi.org/10.1109/AICCSA.2016.7945805
|
17 |
M U Hassan, M H Rehmani, J Chen. Privacy preservation in blockchain based iot systems: integration issues, prospects, challenges, and future research directions. Future Generation Computer Systems, 2019, 97: 512–529
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2019.02.060
|
18 |
P J Taylor, T Dargahi, A Dehghantanha, R M Parizi, K R Choo. A systematic literature review of blockchain cyber security. Digital Communications and Networks, 2020, 6(2): 147–156
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcan.2019.01.005
|
19 |
J Xie, H Tang, T Huang, F R Yu, R Xie, J Liu, Y Liu. A survey of blockchain technology applied to smart cities: research issues and challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 2019, 21(3): 2794–2830
|
20 |
R Yang, F R Yu, P Si, Z Yang, Y Zhang. Integrated blockchain and edge computing systems: a survey, some research issues and challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 2019, 21(2): 1508–1532
https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2019.2894727
|
21 |
V Buterin. A next-generation smart contract and decentralized application platform. White Paper, 2014, 3(37): 1–36
|
22 |
E Ronen, A Shamir, A Weingarten, C O’Flynn. IoT goes nuclear: creating a zigbee chain reaction. In: Proceedings of the 38th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. 2017, 195–212
https://doi.org/10.1109/SP.2017.14
|
23 |
D Vasisht, Z Kapetanovic, J Won, X Jin, R Chandra, S N Sinha, A Kapoor, M Sudarshan, S Stratman. Farmbeats: an IoT platform for data-driven agriculture. In: Proceedings of the 14th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation. 2017, 515–529
|
24 |
A Azaria, A Ekblaw, T Vieira, A Lippman. Medrec: using blockchain for medical data access and permission management. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Open and Big Data. 2016, 25–30
|
25 |
X Yue, H Wang, D Jin, M Li, W Jiang. Healthcare data gateways: found healthcare intelligence on blockchain with novel privacy risk control. Journal of Medical Systems, 2016, 40(10): 218
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10916-016-0574-6
|
26 |
L Chen, W K Lee, C Chang, K R Choo, N Zhang. Blockchain based searchable encryption for electronic health record sharing. Future Generation Computer Systems, 2019, 95: 420–429
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2019.01.018
|
27 |
T McGhin, K R Choo, C Z Liu, D He. Blockchain in healthcare applications: research challenges and opportunities. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 2019, 135(1): 62–75
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnca.2019.02.027
|
28 |
S Huckle, R Bhattacharya, M White, N Beloff. Internet of things, blockchain and shared economy applications. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Emerging Ubiquitous Systems and Pervasive Networks (EUSPN 2016)/The 6th International Conference on Current and Future Trends of Information and Communication Technologies in Healthcare (ICTH-2016)/Affiliated Workshops. 2016, 461–466
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2016.09.074
|
29 |
Q Yao. A systematic framework to understand central bank digital currency. Science China Information Sciences, 2018, 61(3): 033101
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11432-017-9294-5
|
30 |
J Liang, W Han, Z Guo, Y Chen, C Cao, X S Wang, F Li. DESC: enabling secure data exchange based on smart contracts. Science China Information Sciences, 2018, 61(4): 049102
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11432-017-9245-1
|
31 |
S Matsumoto, R M Reischuk. IKP: turning a PKI around with decentralized automated incentives. In: Proceedings of the 38th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. 2017, 410–426
https://doi.org/10.1109/SP.2017.57
|
32 |
J Chen, S Yao, Q Yuan, K He, S Ji, R Du. Certchain: public and efficient certificate audit based on blockchain for TLS connections. In: Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications. 2018, 2060–2068
https://doi.org/10.1109/INFOCOM.2018.8486344
|
33 |
M Chase, S Meiklejohn. Transparency overlays and applications. In: Proceedings of the 23th ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2016, 168–179
https://doi.org/10.1145/2976749.2978404
|
34 |
N Szabo. Formalizing and securing relationships on public networks. First Monday, 1997, 2(9): 1–21
https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v2i9.548
|
35 |
A Paul, A Ahmad, M Khan, G Jeon. Smart contract’s interface for user centric business model in blockchain. In: Proceedings of the 34th ACM/SIGAPP Symposium on Applied Computing. 2019, 709–714
|
36 |
P Siano, G De Marco, A Rolán, V Loia. A survey and evaluation of the potentials of distributed ledger technology for peer-to-peer transactive energy exchanges in local energy markets. IEEE Systems Journal, 2019, 13(3): 3454–3466
|
37 |
M Castillo. The dao attacked: code issue leads to 60 million ether theft. see Coindesk Website, 2020
|
38 |
Reddit. Smartbillions lottery contract just got hacked. see Reddit Website, 2020
|
39 |
S Petrov. Another parity wallet hack explained. see Medium Website, 2020
|
40 |
Slow Mist. Eth dapp hack events. see Slow Mist Hacked Website, 2020
|
41 |
M Bartoletti, L Pompianu. An empirical analysis of smart contracts: platforms, applications, and design patterns. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. 2017, 494–509
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70278-0_31
|
42 |
M Castro, B Liskov. Practical byzantine fault tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 3rd USENIX Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation. 1999, 173–186
|
43 |
H Sukhwani, J M Martínez, X Chang, K S Trivedi, A Rindos. Performance modeling of PBFT consensus process for permissioned blockchain network (hyperledger fabric). In: Proceedings of the 36th IEEE Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems. 2017, 253–255
https://doi.org/10.1109/SRDS.2017.36
|
44 |
B David, P Gazi, A Kiayias, A Russell. Ouroboros praos: an adaptivelysecure, semi-synchronous proof-of-stake blockchain. In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual International Conference on the Theory and Applications of Cryptographic Techniques. 2018, 66–98
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78375-8_3
|
45 |
C Badertscher, P Gazi, A Kiayias, A Russell, V Zikas. Ouroboros genesis: composable proof-of-stake blockchains with dynamic availability. In: Proceedings of the 27th ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2018, 913–930
https://doi.org/10.1145/3243734.3243848
|
46 |
K Petersen, R Feldt, S Mujtaba, M Mattsson. Systematic mapping studies in software engineering. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering. 2008
https://doi.org/10.14236/ewic/EASE2008.8
|
47 |
C Pahl, A Brogi, J Soldani, P Jamshidi. Cloud container technologies: a state-of-the-art review. IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing, 2019, 7(3): 677–692
https://doi.org/10.1109/TCC.2017.2702586
|
48 |
J Bonneau, A Miller, J Clark, A Narayanan, J A Kroll, E W Felten. Sok: research perspectives and challenges for bitcoin and cryptocurrencies. In: Proceedings of the 36th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. 2015, 104–121
https://doi.org/10.1109/SP.2015.14
|
49 |
M Alharby, A van Moorsel. Blockchain-based smart contracts: a systematic mapping study. 2017, arXiv preprint arXiv:1710.06372
https://doi.org/10.5121/csit.2017.71011
|
50 |
N Atzei, M Bartoletti, T Cimoli. A survey of attacks on ethereum smart contracts (sok). In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Principles of Security and Trust. 2017, 164–186
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54455-6_8
|
51 |
S Wang, L Ouyang, Y Yuan, X Ni, X Han, F Y Wang. Blockchainenabled smart contracts: architecture, applications, and future trends. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems, 2019, 49(11): 2266–2277
https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.2019.2895123
|
52 |
A Juels, A E Kosba, E Shi. The ring of gyges: investigating the future of criminal smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 23rd ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2016, 283–295
https://doi.org/10.1145/2976749.2978362
|
53 |
Y Kwon, D Kim, Y Son, E Y Vasserman, Y Kim. Be selfish and avoid dilemmas: fork after withholding (FAW) attacks on bitcoin. In: Proceedings of the 24th ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2017, 195–209
https://doi.org/10.1145/3133956.3134019
|
54 |
I Eyal. The miner’s dilemma. In: Proceedings of the 36th IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. 2015, 89–103
https://doi.org/10.1109/SP.2015.13
|
55 |
Y Velner, J Teutsch, L Luu, Smart contracts make bitcoin mining pools vulnerable. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. 2017, 298–316
|
56 |
P McCorry, A Hicks, S Meiklejohn. Smart contracts for bribing Miners. IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive, 2018, 2018: 581
|
57 |
Y Wang, A Bracciali, T Li, F Li, X Cui, M Zhao. Randomness invalidates criminal smart contracts. Information Science, 2019, 477: 291–301
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2018.10.057
|
58 |
C F Torres, M Steichen. The art of the scam: demystifying honeypots in ethereum smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 28th USENIX Security Symposium. 2019
|
59 |
Y Zhou, D Kumar, S Bakshi, J Mason, A Miller, M Bailey. Erays: reverse engineering ethereum’s opaque smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 27th USENIX Security Symposium. 2018, 1371–1385
|
60 |
B Schwarz, S K Debray, G R Andrews. Disassembly of executable code revisited. In: Proceedings of the 9th Working Conference on Reverse Engineering. 2012, 45–54
|
61 |
N Grech, L Brent, B Scholz, Y Smaragdakis. Gigahorse: thorough, declarative decompilation of smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 41st International Conference on Software Engineering. 2019, 1176–1186
|
62 |
R M Parizi, A Dehghantanha, R Choo. A singh, empirical vulnerability analysis of automated smart contracts security testing on blockchains. In: Proceedings of the 28th Annual International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering. 2018, 103–113
|
63 |
T Chen, X Li, X Luo, X Zhang. Under-optimized smart contracts devour your money. In: Proceedings of the 24th IEEE International Conference on Software Analysis, Evolution and Reengineering. 2017, 442–446
|
64 |
L Luu, D Chu, H Olickel, P Saxena, A Hobor. Making smart contracts smarter. In: Proceedings of the 23rd ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2016, 254–269
|
65 |
T Chen, X Li, Y Wang, J Chen, Z Li, X Luo, M H Au, X Zhang. An adaptive gas cost mechanism for ethereum to defend against under-priced dos attacks. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Information Security Practice and Experience. 2017, 3–24
|
66 |
L Luu, J Teutsch, R Kulkarni, P Saxena. Demystifying incentives in the consensus computer. In: Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2015, 706–719
|
67 |
Y Li. Finding concurrency exploits on smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 41st International Conference on Software Engineering: Companion Proceedings. 2019, 144–146
|
68 |
M J Coblenz. Obsidian: a safer blockchain programming language. In: Proceedings of the 39th International Conference on Software Engineering. 2017, 97–99
https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSE-C.2017.150
|
69 |
F Schrans, S Eisenbach, S Drossopoulou. Writing safe smart contracts in flint. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Art, Science, and Engineering of Programming. 2018, 218–219
https://doi.org/10.1145/3191697.3213790
|
70 |
F Schrans, D Hails, A Harkness, S Drossopoulou, S Eisenbach. Flint for safer smart contracts. 2019, arXiv preprint arXiv:1904.06534
|
71 |
C F Torres, J Sch¯Aijtte, R State. Osiris: hunting for integer bugs in ethereum smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 34th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference. 2018
|
72 |
I Nikolic, A Kolluri, I Sergey, P Saxena, A Hobor. Finding the greedy, prodigal, and suicidal contracts at scale. In: Proceedings of the 34th Annual Conference on Computer Security Applications. 2018
|
73 |
B Jiang, Y Liu, W K Chan. Contractfuzzer: fuzzing smart contracts for vulnerability detection. In: Proceedings of the 33rd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Automated Software Engineering. 2018, 259–269
|
74 |
M Rodler, W Li, G O Karame, L Davi. Sereum: protecting existing smart contracts against re-entrancy attacks. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. 2019
https://doi.org/10.14722/ndss.2019.23413
|
75 |
F Ma, Y Fu, M Ren, M Wang, Y Jiang, K Zhang, H Li, X Shi. EVM∗: from offline detection to online reinforcement for ethereum virtual machine. In: Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Conference on Software Analysis, Evolution and Reengineering. 2019, 554–558
https://doi.org/10.1109/SANER.2019.8668038
|
76 |
H Liu, Z Yang, Y Jiang, W Zhao, J Sun. Enabling clone detection for ethereum via smart contract birthmarks. In: Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Program Comprehension. 2019, 105–115
|
77 |
H Liu, C Liu, W Zhao, Y Jiang, J Sun. S-gram: towards semantic-aware security auditing for ethereum smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 33rd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Automated Software Engineering. 2018, 814–819
|
78 |
H Liu, Z Yang, C Liu, Y Jiang, W Zhao, J Sun, Eclone: detect semantic clones in ethereum via symbolic transaction sketch. In: Proceedings of the 26th 2018 ACM Joint Meeting on European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering. 2018, 900–903
https://doi.org/10.1145/3236024.3264596
|
79 |
M D Angelo, G Salzer. A survey of tools for analyzing ethereum smart Contracts. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Decentralized Applications and Infrastructures. 2019
https://doi.org/10.1109/DAPPCON.2019.00018
|
80 |
J Krupp, C Rossow. teEther: gnawing at ethereum to automatically exploit smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 27th USENIX Security Symposium. 2018, 1317–1333
|
81 |
M Mossberg, F Manzano, E Hennenfent, A Groce, G Grieco, J Feist, T Brunson, A Dinaburg. Manticore: a user-friendly symbolic execution framework for binaries and smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 34th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Automated Software Engineering. 2019
|
82 |
S Kalra, S Goel, M Dhawan, S Sharma. ZEUS: analyzing safety of smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 25th Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. 2018
https://doi.org/10.14722/ndss.2018.23082
|
83 |
K Bhargavan, A Delignat-Lavaud, C Fournet, A Gollamudi, G Gonthier, N Kobeissi, N Kulatova, A Rastogi, T Sibut-Pinote, N Swamy, S Z Béguelin. Formal verification of smart contracts: Short paper. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Workshop on Programming Languages and Analysis for Security. 2016, 91–96
https://doi.org/10.1145/2993600.2993611
|
84 |
F Idelberger, G Governatori, R Riveret, G Sartor. Evaluation of logicbased smart contracts for blockchain systems. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Rule Technologies, Research, Tools, and Applications. 2016, 167–183
|
85 |
E Hildenbrandt, M Saxena, N Rodrigues, X Zhu, P Daian, D Guth, B M Moore, D Park, Y Zhang, A Stefanescu, G Rosu. KEVM: a complete formal semantics of the ethereum virtual machine. In: Proceedings of the 31st IEEE Computer Security Foundations Symposium. 2018, 204–217
|
86 |
D Park, Y Zhang, M Saxena, P Daian, G Rosu. A formal verification tool for ethereum VM bytecode. In: Proceedings of the 2018 ACM Joint Meeting on European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering. 2018, 912–915
|
87 |
W Ahrendt, G J Pace, G Schneider. Smart contracts: a killer application for deductive source code verification. In: Müller P, Schaefer I. eds. Principled Software Development. Springer, Cham, 2018, 1–18
|
88 |
J Ellul, G J Pace. Runtime verification of ethereum smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 14th European Dependable Computing Conference. 2018, 158–163.
|
89 |
P Tsankov, A M Dan, D Drachsler-Cohen, A Gervais, F Bünzli, M T Vechev. Securify: practical security analysis of smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2018, 67–82
|
90 |
X Bai, Z Cheng, Z Duan, K Hu. Formal modeling and verification of smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Software and Computer Applications. 2018, 322–326
|
91 |
C Liu, H Liu, Z Cao, Z Chen, B Chen, B Roscoe. Reguard: finding reentrancy bugs in smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 40th International Conference on Software Engineering: Companion Proceeedings. 2018, 65–68
|
92 |
V Wüstholz, M Christakis. Harvey: a greybox fuzzer for smart contracts. 2019, arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.06944
|
93 |
W J Tann, X J Han, S S Gupta, Y Ong. Towards safer smart contracts: a sequence learning approach to detecting vulnerabilities. 2018, arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.06632
|
94 |
M Finifter, D Akhawe, D A Wagner. An empirical study of vulnerability rewards programs. In: Proceedings of the 22nd USENIX Security Symposium. 2013, 273–288
|
95 |
L Breidenbach, P Daian, F Tramèr, A Juels. Enter the hydra: towards principled bug bounties and exploit-resistant smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 27th USENIX Security Symposium. 2018, 1335–1352
|
96 |
W Banasik, S Dziembowski, D Malinowski. Efficient zero-knowledge contingent payments in cryptocurrencies without scripts. In: Proceedings of the 21st European Symposium on Research in Computer Security. 2016, 261–280
|
97 |
F Tramèr, F Zhang, H Lin, J Hubaux, A Juels, E Shi. Sealed-glass proofs: using transparent enclaves to prove and sell knowledge. In: Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy. 2017, 19–34
|
98 |
H A Kalodner, S Goldfeder, X Chen, S M Weinberg, E W Felten. Arbitrum: scalable, private smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 27th USENIX Security Symposium. 2018, 1353–1370
|
99 |
G Ateniese, B Magri, D Venturi, E R Andrade. Redactable blockchain- or- rewriting history in bitcoin and friends. In: Proceedings of 2017 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy. 2017, 111–126
|
100 |
D Derler, K Samelin, D Slamanig, C Striecks. Fine-grained and controlled rewriting in blockchains: chameleon-hashing gone attributebased. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. 2019
https://doi.org/10.14722/ndss.2019.23066
|
101 |
E Hildenbrandt, M Saxena, N Rodrigues, X Zhu, P Daian, D Guth, B M Moore, D Park, Y Zhang, A Stefanescu, G Rosu. KEVM: a complete formal semantics of the ethereum virtual machine. In: Proceedings of the 31st IEEE Computer Security Foundations Symposium. 2018, 204–217
https://doi.org/10.1109/CSF.2018.00022
|
102 |
G Rosu, T Serbanuta. An overview of the K semantic framework. Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming, 2010, 79(6): 397–434
|
103 |
K Chatterjee, A K Goharshady, A Pourdamghani. Probabilistic smart contracts: secure randomness on the blockchain. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency. 2019
|
104 |
C Pierrot, B Wesolowski. Malleability of the blockchain’s entropy. Cryptography and Communications, 2018, 10(1): 211–233
|
105 |
C Cachin, K Kursawe, V Shoup. Random oracles in constantinople: practical asynchronous byzantine agreement using cryptography. Journal of Cryptology, 2005, 18(3): 219–246
|
106 |
J Bonneau, A Narayanan, A Miller, J Clark, J A Kroll, EW Felten. Mixcoin: anonymity for bitcoin with accountable mixes. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. 2014, 486–504
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45472-5_31
|
107 |
C Garman, M Green, I Miers, A D Rubin. Rational zero: economic security for zerocoin with everlasting anonymity. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. 2014, 140–155
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44774-1_10
|
108 |
B Bünz, S Goldfeder, J Bonneau. Proofs-of-delay and randomness beacons\ in ethereum. IEEE Security and Privacy on the Blockchain (IEEE S&B), 2017
|
109 |
A K Lenstra, B Wesolowski. A random zoo: sloth, unicorn, and trx IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive, 2015, 2015: 366
|
110 |
Y Gilad, R Hemo, S Micali, G Vlachos, N Zeldovich. Algorand: scaling byzantine agreements for cryptocurrencies. In: Proceedings of the 26th Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. 2017, 51–68
|
111 |
S Micali, M O Rabin, S P Vadhan. Verifiable random functions. In: Proceedings of the 40th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science. 1999, 120–130
|
112 |
T Hanke, M Movahedi, D Williams. DFINITY technology overview series, consensus system. 2018, arXiv preprint arXiv:1805.04548
|
113 |
C Badertscher, P Gazi, A Kiayias, A Russell, V Zikas. Ouroboros genesis: composable proof-of-stake blockchains with dynamic availability. In: Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2018, 913–930
|
114 |
R Pass, E Shi. Thunderella: Blockchains with optimistic instant confirmation. In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual International Conference on the Theory and Applications of Cryptographic Techniques. 2018, 3–33
|
115 |
F Zhang, E Cecchetti, K Croman, A Juels, E Shi. Town crier: an authenticated data feed for smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 23rd ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. 2016, 270–282
|
116 |
S Ellis, A Juels, S Nazarov. Chainlink—a decentralized oracle Network. 2017
|
117 |
I Sergey, A Hobor. A concurrent perspective on smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. 2017, 478–493
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70278-0_30
|
118 |
T D Dickerson, P Gazzillo, M Herlihy, E Koskinen. Adding concurrency to smart contracts. In: Proceedings of the 36th ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing. 2017, 303–312
|
119 |
A Zhang, K Zhang. Enabling concurrency on smart contracts using multiversion ordering. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Joint Conference on Web and Big Data. 2018, 425–439
|
120 |
Z Li, D Zou, S Xu, X Ou, H Jin, S Wang, Z Deng, Y Zhong. Vuldeepecker: a deep learning-based system for vulnerability detection. In: Proceedings of the 25th Annual Network and Distributed System Security Symposium. 2018
|
121 |
R Russell, L Kim, L Hamilton, T Lazovich, J Harer, O Ozdemir, P Ellingwood, M McConley. Automated vulnerability detection in source code using deep representation learning. In: Proceedings of the 17th IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications. 2018, 757–762
|
122 |
B Liu, W Huo, C Zhang, W Li, F Li, A Piao, W Zou. αdiff: cross-version binary code similarity detection with DNN. In: Proceedings of the 33rd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Automated Software Engineering. 2018, 667–678
https://doi.org/10.1145/3238147.3238199
|
123 |
M White, M Tufano, C Vendome, D Poshyvanyk. Deep learning code fragments for code clone detection. In: Proceedings of the 31st IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated Software Engineering. 2016, 87–98
https://doi.org/10.1145/2970276.2970326
|
|
Viewed |
|
|
|
Full text
|
|
|
|
|
Abstract
|
|
|
|
|
Cited |
|
|
|
|
|
Shared |
|
|
|
|
|
Discussed |
|
|
|
|