Geological implications of elements of the Pleistocene mudstone with different organism compositions and enrichment environments in the Qaidam Basin, China

doi:10.1007/s11707-022-0996-z

Front. Earth Sci.

2023, Vol. 17

Issue (2) : 437-454 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11707-022-0996-z

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Geological implications of elements of the Pleistocene mudstone with different organism compositions and enrichment environments in the Qaidam Basin, China

Jinqi QIAO^1,², Qingyong LUO^1,²(

), Chen ZHANG^1,³, Zhenxue JIANG^1,³

¹. State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
². Basin and Reservoir Research Center, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
³. Unconventional Natural Gas Research Institute, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China

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Abstract

Trace elements and rare earth elements (REEs) of two kinds of organic facies samples representing marginal and more basin-center deposits from Pleistocene lacustrine mudstones in the central Qaidam Basin were studied to understand the provenance, palaeotectonic setting, hydrothermal activity, palaeoredox conditions and sedimentary rate. The results show that the lacustrine mudstones were mainly derived from felsic sources with little contribution from ancient crustal sediments and no ultramafic (ophiolitic) source. The mudstones were deposited in a continental island arc tectonic setting, which is consistent with the tectonic evolution of the Cenozoic basin. Both two organic facies samples were hydrothermal in origin based on the ternary diagram of Ni–Zn–Co and normalized REE patterns. However, this does not mean that the water column in paleolake was affected by hydrothermal fluids in situ. This signal might indicate hydrothermal origins from hot springs related to active faults around the basin rather than the deep hydrothermal fluids entering the sediments via deep faculties based on the comprehensive analyses of normalized REE patterns, negative Eu_anom (Eu anomaly), Y/Ho, Sm/Yb, and Eu/Sm. Redox proxies including U/Th, Ni/Co, and Mn_anom values, are more sensitive for the studied samples indicating that most of the organic facies A samples were deposited under an oxygen-depleted condition, while the organic facies B samples were deposited under oxygen-rich conditions. Redox proxies of Ce_anom values are unavailable for the organic facies B samples due to hypersaline environments, and V/Cr and V/(V + Ni) are invalid for the organic facies A samples, possibly because of their organism composition. The low La_n/Yb_n values indicate high sedimentation rates, which is consistent with the average sedimentation rates of approximately 0.43 to 1.1 km/Ma. However, the La_n/Yb_n is more likely affected by the provenance of the studied samples, so it should be used with caution.

Keywords elements lacustrine mudstone Pleistocene Qigequan Formation Qaidam Basin

Corresponding Author(s): Qingyong LUO

Online First Date: 15 March 2023 Issue Date: 04 August 2023

Cite this article:

Jinqi QIAO,Qingyong LUO,Chen ZHANG, et al. Geological implications of elements of the Pleistocene mudstone with different organism compositions and enrichment environments in the Qaidam Basin, China[J]. Front. Earth Sci., 2023, 17(2): 437-454.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fesci/EN/10.1007/s11707-022-0996-z
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fesci/EN/Y2023/V17/I2/437

Fig.1 (a) Geological setting and sample well locations, and (b and c) cross sections in SE–NE and NW–SE directions. The dashed line with an arrow illustrates the depocenter shift during the depositional history of the basin (Qiu et al., 2003).

Fig.2 Generalized Pleistocene stratigraphic column for the study area (modified after Jian et al., 2013 and Zhang et al., 2013a).

Fig.3 Chondrite-normalized rare earth element patterns of (a) organic facies A and (b) B samples in comparison with the seawater (Piepgras and Jacobsen, 1992), 13°N hydrothermal fluids (Douville et al., 1999), Rainbow Vent hydrothermal fluids (Douville et al. 2002), and submarine hydrothermal fluids (Hongo et al., 2007) compositions.

Well	Fm.	Sample ID	Depth/m	TOC ^a)/%	Organic Facies	Fe^b)	Sc	Ti^c)	V	Cr	Mn^d)	Co	Ni	Y	Zr	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu	Hf	U^e)	Th^f)	MREE
S 1	K4	18-850	794.76	0.83	B	42987.00	14.23	4351.42	103.07	80.43	832.59	16.35	45.73	31.49	214.83	34.65	70.17	8.20	31.30	6.11	1.38	5.29	0.88	4.95	0.99	3.15	0.46	2.91	0.46	5.61	3.98	15.41	170.88
		18-853	801.46	12.86	A	27958.00	9.61	3686.73	72.61	64.59	442.50	11.32	47.16	24.48	171.48	25.60	53.60	6.27	23.87	4.66	0.93	3.96	0.69	3.91	0.77	2.43	0.36	2.20	0.34	4.41	14.89	10.75	129.59
		18-856	811.86	0.62	B	45850.00	18.26	4663.67	132.57	96.08	828.29	18.42	49.60	31.79	163.20	38.10	77.98	8.94	33.61	6.45	1.59	5.45	0.90	5.03	1.00	3.16	0.47	2.99	0.47	4.38	3.21	18.81	186.13
		18-857	820.47	0.78	B	37884.00	12.26	3266.87	87.62	68.14	876.52	14.85	41.66	26.81	180.73	31.99	65.31	7.59	28.75	5.51	1.10	4.61	0.76	4.23	0.84	2.66	0.40	2.49	0.39	4.65	2.77	14.06	156.63
	K9	18-858	1269.00	8.86	A	42532.00	12.65	4673.93	113.13	84.07	322.68	18.13	60.54	28.21	250.28	32.43	68.53	8.01	30.24	5.83	1.08	4.73	0.81	4.54	0.92	2.94	0.44	2.74	0.43	6.58	14.74	13.74	163.66
		18-860	1272.50	0.68	B	45787.00	15.71	4588.94	117.13	85.82	590.47	17.13	48.73	26.38	161.57	32.42	66.52	7.68	28.91	5.53	1.04	4.51	0.76	4.19	0.83	2.64	0.40	2.48	0.39	4.25	3.59	16.40	158.30
		18-861	1279.40	25.31	A	29036.00	9.32	3588.60	76.80	67.35	284.40	10.68	48.57	23.43	177.02	24.65	50.58	5.83	22.19	4.34	0.85	3.65	0.63	3.60	0.73	2.30	0.34	2.12	0.34	4.62	8.15	10.29	122.15
	K10	18-862	1377.50	16.73	A	49686.00	10.30	3669.33	186.74	95.33	350.79	13.92	59.53	22.69	393.74	27.37	56.21	6.55	24.82	4.79	0.96	3.82	0.64	3.48	0.70	2.17	0.33	2.04	0.33	6.68	19.26	12.30	134.20
	K10	18-864	1380.50	6.49	A	51982.00	11.51	4782.43	113.92	90.85	272.69	20.90	88.30	23.05	279.05	27.52	57.43	6.62	24.59	4.60	0.89	3.67	0.63	3.54	0.72	2.32	0.35	2.18	0.35	5.86	13.40	13.23	135.42
T 1	K11	18-867	1697.30	4.08	A	25921.00	8.80	3204.03	85.71	59.29	742.82	9.74	38.72	23.31	168.26	24.88	49.64	5.76	22.24	4.36	0.85	3.69	0.63	3.44	0.69	2.17	0.32	1.96	0.32	3.95	9.93	9.40	120.95
		18-868	1697.50	4.15	A	27629.00	8.71	3106.79	86.25	57.12	1078.04	12.22	39.84	25.02	185.12	24.33	48.56	5.66	21.74	4.29	0.84	3.68	0.65	3.63	0.74	2.31	0.34	2.07	0.33	4.13	9.00	8.37	119.18
		18-869	1697.70	9.91	A	37779.00	12.28	4508.47	147.75	110.50	335.24	11.15	92.80	26.92	234.36	28.67	59.76	6.96	26.31	5.11	0.99	4.25	0.75	4.18	0.85	2.67	0.40	2.52	0.40	5.96	10.38	12.93	143.81
Y 1	K 4	18-872	124.69	0.64	B	46200.00	17.74	4722.24	132.68	95.03	687.46	17.56	48.27	32.45	158.39	38.51	78.44	9.00	33.92	6.58	1.72	5.55	0.93	5.12	1.02	3.20	0.48	2.94	0.47	4.23	4.79	19.56	187.86
Y 1	K 4	18-873	124.99	0.52	B	50743.00	17.93	4605.34	132.70	95.72	1063.60	19.54	49.42	29.28	161.33	35.20	72.59	8.23	31.06	6.02	1.50	5.04	0.84	4.65	0.94	3.01	0.45	2.85	0.45	4.30	3.18	18.26	172.85
S 2	K2	18-876	534.40	0.71	B	34510.00	16.39	3713.13	127.60	107.86	469.38	14.95	43.96	26.32	204.71	30.67	62.75	7.27	27.20	5.09	1.17	4.11	0.70	4.00	0.82	2.64	0.40	2.54	0.41	5.27	2.94	16.00	149.78
	K2	18-878	543.80	8.19	A	34223.00	11.91	4421.07	86.88	75.60	416.02	12.52	59.58	27.50	229.62	29.67	62.24	7.30	27.81	5.49	1.07	4.48	0.78	4.38	0.88	2.79	0.41	2.58	0.41	5.96	15.19	12.56	150.30
	K3	18-879	555.10	1.11	B	48230.00	17.41	3591.42	124.20	95.69	1298.29	19.12	52.54	32.62	157.67	36.55	74.40	8.62	32.64	6.27	1.26	5.27	0.90	4.96	1.00	3.16	0.47	2.95	0.47	4.10	3.10	17.59	178.94
	K3	18-880	566.10	1.10	B	39452.00	13.62	4248.90	98.97	74.39	924.22	14.53	40.89	27.97	154.36	32.66	66.07	7.62	28.86	5.58	1.10	4.65	0.78	4.31	0.86	2.68	0.40	2.48	0.40	4.03	3.48	14.78	158.45
	K7	18-892	1313.30	0.60	B	50617.00	17.79	4384.99	133.34	96.06	1023.23	18.93	51.07	29.13	147.93	33.47	68.04	7.88	29.40	5.61	1.10	4.70	0.80	4.50	0.91	2.90	0.44	2.73	0.43	3.97	3.93	17.40	162.90
	K10	18-894	1266.70	1.00	B	36218.00	11.15	3824.11	84.49	70.67	931.34	13.27	44.78	22.42	118.95	24.75	50.89	5.88	22.38	4.32	0.85	3.65	0.62	3.44	0.69	2.17	0.32	1.98	0.31	3.09	3.55	11.35	122.25
T 2	K6	18-895	1269.90	0.70	B	30807.00	10.85	3268.59	83.81	64.54	709.34	12.52	38.11	20.14	128.68	20.78	43.14	4.95	18.89	3.72	0.73	3.14	0.55	3.07	0.62	1.95	0.30	1.84	0.30	3.24	3.28	9.54	103.97
T 2	K6	18-897	235.10	0.79	B	28392.00	8.72	3200.11	66.26	50.60	1251.10	10.02	33.69	19.55	121.78	20.31	41.92	4.84	18.48	3.61	0.70	3.03	0.53	2.96	0.60	1.87	0.28	1.71	0.27	3.06	5.38	9.15	101.09
H 1	K4	18-898	255.90	0.70	B	31430.00	7.67	2548.00	58.50	44.29	496.20	8.76	25.52	15.73	86.73	17.87	36.67	4.21	15.91	3.10	0.59	2.58	0.44	2.42	0.48	1.52	0.23	1.40	0.22	2.23	6.50	8.20	87.65
	K4	18-899	1082.70	0.66	B	38129.00	14.10	4421.42	103.13	76.57	955.94	15.36	43.26	29.26	157.90	31.76	64.87	7.57	28.89	5.61	1.09	4.72	0.79	4.45	0.90	2.83	0.42	2.62	0.42	4.13	5.28	14.28	156.96
	K13	18-900	982.20	0.69	B	32340.00	11.20	3963.05	84.76	63.56	1173.77	12.69	37.12	24.00	148.70	26.42	55.27	6.38	24.22	4.70	0.89	3.86	0.67	3.70	0.74	2.30	0.35	2.16	0.34	3.82	3.98	12.03	131.98
	K13	18-901	985.80	0.82	B	39655.00	12.58	4295.16	95.51	69.99	726.64	14.60	42.22	26.18	150.32	29.18	60.16	7.01	26.49	5.14	0.99	4.23	0.73	4.10	0.80	2.54	0.38	2.35	0.37	3.86	3.77	12.84	144.47
T 3	K6	18-915	631.30	0.49	B	44709.00	17.34	3980.03	128.45	93.70	775.01	18.70	49.97	29.10	167.55	33.48	68.38	7.92	30.01	5.70	1.09	4.65	0.80	4.53	0.91	2.91	0.44	2.75	0.43	4.43	3.36	17.12	164.01
T 3	K6	18-916	646.11	0.77	B	39123.00	16.22	3393.65	116.23	93.91	853.70	19.06	52.74	29.16	189.87	34.45	71.03	8.21	30.92	5.91	1.13	4.85	0.82	4.55	0.91	2.86	0.42	2.63	0.42	4.91	4.06	16.31	169.12

Tab.1 Elements concentrations (ppm) of the Pleistocene lacustrine mudstone from the Qaidam Basin, China

Well	Fm.	Sample ID	Depth/m	TOC/%	Organic Facies	ΣLREE/ΣHREE	Eu_anom^a)	La/Yb	Th/Sc	Pr_anom^b)	Ce_anom^c)	Zr/Sc	La/Th	Y/Ni	Cr/V	Ti/Zr	La/Sc	La/Co	Cr/Th	Cr/Ni	Mn_anom^d)	La_n/Yb_n	U / Th	V / Cr	Ni / Co	V / (V + Ni)	Gd_N /Yb_N	Y/Ho	Eu/Sm	Sm/Yb	Normalized distribution of La-Th-Sc/%			Normalized distribution of Zr/10-Th-Sc/%			Normalized distribution of Ni-Zr-Co/%
Well	Fm.	Sample ID	Depth/m	TOC/%	Organic Facies	ΣLREE/ΣHREE	Eu_anom^a)	La/Yb	Th/Sc	Pr_anom^b)	Ce_anom^c)	Zr/Sc	La/Th	Y/Ni	Cr/V	Ti/Zr	La/Sc	La/Co	Cr/Th	Cr/Ni	Mn_anom^d)	La_n/Yb_n	U / Th	V / Cr	Ni / Co	V / (V + Ni)	Gd_N /Yb_N	Y/Ho	Eu/Sm	Sm/Yb	La	Th	Sc	Zr/10	Th	Sc	Ni	Zr	Co
S 1	K4	18-850	794.76	0.83	B	7.96	0.69	11.93	1.08	0.99	0.97	15.10	2.25	0.69	0.78	20.26	2.44	2.12	5.22	1.76	0.17	0.81	0.26	1.28	2.80	0.69	1.47	31.83	0.23	2.10	54	24	22	42	30	28	29	60	10
		18-853	801.46	12.86	A	7.84	0.73	11.63	1.12	0.99	0.97	17.84	2.38	0.52	0.89	21.50	2.66	2.26	6.01	1.37	0.09	0.79	1.38	1.12	4.17	0.61	1.45	31.71	0.20	2.12	56	23	21	46	29	26	40	51	10
		18-856	811.86	0.62	B	8.56	0.71	12.76	1.03	0.99	0.99	8.94	2.02	0.64	0.72	28.58	2.09	2.07	5.11	1.94	0.14	0.86	0.17	1.38	2.69	0.73	1.47	31.86	0.25	2.16	51	25	24	31	35	34	26	65	10
		18-857	820.47	0.78	B	8.56	0.69	12.87	1.15	0.99	0.97	14.74	2.28	0.64	0.78	18.08	2.61	2.15	4.85	1.64	0.25	0.87	0.20	1.29	2.80	0.68	1.50	31.75	0.20	2.22	55	24	21	41	32	28	29	61	10
	K9	18-858	1269.00	8.86	A	8.33	0.67	11.85	1.09	0.99	0.97	19.78	2.36	0.47	0.74	18.67	2.56	1.79	6.12	1.39	-0.23	0.80	1.07	1.35	3.34	0.65	1.40	30.68	0.18	2.13	55	23	22	49	27	25	39	49	12
		18-860	1272.50	0.68	B	8.77	0.70	13.05	1.04	0.99	0.98	10.28	1.98	0.54	0.73	28.40	2.06	1.89	5.23	1.76	0.00	0.88	0.22	1.36	2.84	0.71	1.47	31.67	0.19	2.23	50	25	24	33	34	33	28	62	10
		18-861	1279.40	25.31	A	7.90	0.71	11.61	1.10	0.98	0.98	18.98	2.40	0.48	0.88	20.27	2.64	2.31	6.55	1.39	-0.12	0.78	0.79	1.14	4.55	0.61	1.39	32.11	0.11	2.04	56	23	21	47	28	25	41	50	9
	K10	18-862	1377.50	16.73	A	8.94	0.69	13.41	1.19	0.99	0.97	38.22	2.22	0.38	0.51	9.32	2.66	1.97	7.75	1.60	-0.27	0.91	1.57	1.96	4.28	0.76	1.51	32.59	0.20	2.35	55	25	21	64	20	17	37	55	9
	K10	18-864	1380.50	6.49	A	8.84	0.69	12.61	1.15	1.00	0.99	24.25	2.08	0.26	0.80	17.14	2.39	1.32	6.87	1.03	-0.39	0.85	1.01	1.25	4.23	0.56	1.36	32.04	0.19	2.11	53	25	22	53	25	22	48	41	11
T 1	K11	18-867	1697.30	4.08	A	8.15	0.72	12.68	1.07	0.98	0.97	19.11	2.65	0.60	0.69	19.04	2.83	2.55	6.31	1.53	0.34	0.86	1.06	1.45	3.97	0.69	1.52	33.61	0.20	2.22	58	22	20	48	27	25	38	52	10
		18-868	1697.50	4.15	A	7.66	0.71	11.73	0.96	0.99	0.96	21.25	2.91	0.63	0.66	16.78	2.79	1.99	6.83	1.43	0.48	0.79	1.08	1.51	3.26	0.68	1.43	33.99	0.19	2.07	59	20	21	52	24	24	38	51	12
		18-869	1697.70	9.91	A	7.98	0.70	11.38	1.05	0.99	0.97	19.08	2.22	0.29	0.75	19.24	2.33	2.57	8.55	1.19	-0.17	0.77	0.80	1.34	8.32	0.61	1.36	31.61	0.19	2.03	53	24	23	48	27	25	50	44	6
Y 1	K 4	18-872	124.69	0.64	B	8.54	0.79	13.11	1.10	0.99	0.99	8.93	1.97	0.67	0.72	29.81	2.17	2.19	4.86	1.97	0.06	0.89	0.24	1.40	2.75	0.73	1.53	31.79	0.26	2.24	51	26	23	30	37	33	25	65	9
Y 1	K 4	18-873	124.99	0.52	B	8.48	0.69	12.37	1.02	0.98	1.00	9.00	1.93	0.59	0.72	28.55	1.96	1.80	5.24	1.94	0.21	0.84	0.17	1.39	2.53	0.73	1.43	31.08	0.25	2.12	49	26	25	31	35	34	26	64	10
S 2	K2	18-876	534.40	0.71	B	8.58	0.70	12.07	0.98	0.99	0.98	12.49	1.92	0.60	0.85	18.14	1.87	2.05	6.74	2.45	0.02	0.82	0.18	1.18	2.94	0.74	1.31	32.07	0.23	2.00	49	25	26	39	30	31	27	64	9
		18-878	543.80	8.19	A	7.99	0.71	11.51	1.05	0.99	0.96	19.28	2.36	0.46	0.87	19.25	2.49	2.37	6.02	1.27	-0.03	0.78	1.21	1.15	4.76	0.59	1.40	31.15	0.20	2.13	55	23	22	48	26	25	42	50	9
	K3	18-879	555.10	1.11	B	8.32	0.69	12.37	1.01	0.99	0.98	9.06	2.08	0.62	0.77	22.78	2.10	1.91	5.44	1.82	0.32	0.84	0.18	1.30	2.75	0.70	1.44	32.55	0.20	2.12	51	25	24	31	35	34	28	62	10
		18-880	566.10	1.10	B	8.57	0.84	13.16	1.09	0.99	0.98	11.34	2.21	0.68	0.75	27.53	2.40	2.25	5.03	1.82	0.26	0.89	0.24	1.33	2.81	0.71	1.51	32.69	0.20	2.25	53	24	22	35	34	31	28	62	10
	K7	18-892	1313.30	0.60	B	8.36	0.70	12.26	0.98	1.00	0.99	8.31	1.92	0.57	0.72	29.64	1.88	1.77	5.52	1.88	0.19	0.83	0.19	1.39	2.70	0.72	1.39	31.88	0.20	2.05	49	25	26	30	35	36	27	63	10
	K10	18-894	1266.70	1.00	B	8.27	0.69	12.51	1.02	0.98	0.98	10.67	2.18	0.50	0.84	32.15	2.22	1.86	6.23	1.58	0.30	0.85	0.47	1.20	3.37	0.65	1.49	32.50	0.20	2.18	52	24	24	35	33	32	33	57	10
T 2	K6	18-895	1269.90	0.70	B	7.84	0.68	11.32	0.88	0.98	0.98	11.86	2.18	0.53	0.77	25.40	1.92	1.66	6.77	1.69	0.25	0.76	0.68	1.30	3.04	0.69	1.38	32.70	0.20	2.03	50	23	26	39	29	33	31	58	10
		18-897	235.10	0.79	B	8.00	0.68	11.89	1.05	0.98	0.98	13.97	2.22	0.58	0.76	26.28	2.33	2.03	5.53	1.50	0.53	0.80	0.58	1.31	3.36	0.66	1.43	32.78	0.19	2.12	53	24	23	41	30	29	33	57	10
H 1	K4	18-898	255.90	0.70	B	8.43	0.68	12.77	1.07	0.99	0.99	11.31	2.18	0.62	0.76	29.38	2.33	2.04	5.40	1.74	0.08	0.86	0.48	1.32	2.91	0.70	1.49	32.44	0.19	2.21	53	24	23	35	33	31	29	61	10
	K4	18-899	1082.70	0.66	B	8.14	0.93	12.13	1.01	0.99	0.97	11.20	2.22	0.68	0.74	28.00	2.25	2.07	5.36	1.77	0.29	0.82	0.25	1.35	2.82	0.70	1.46	32.56	0.19	2.14	53	24	23	36	32	32	29	61	10
	K13	18-900	982.20	0.69	B	8.35	0.87	12.25	1.07	0.99	0.98	13.28	2.20	0.65	0.75	26.65	2.36	2.08	5.28	1.71	0.45	0.83	0.33	1.33	2.93	0.70	1.45	32.44	0.19	2.18	53	24	23	39	32	29	32	57	11
		18-901	985.80	0.82	B	8.31	0.69	12.40	1.02	0.99	0.97	11.95	2.27	0.62	0.73	28.57	2.32	2.00	5.45	1.66	0.15	0.84	0.29	1.36	2.89	0.69	1.45	32.53	0.19	2.18	53	24	23	37	32	31	24	68	8
T 3	K6	18-915	631.30	0.49	B	8.41	0.88	12.15	0.99	0.99	0.98	9.66	1.96	0.58	0.73	23.75	1.93	1.79	5.47	1.88	0.12	0.82	0.20	1.37	2.67	0.72	1.36	32.07	0.19	2.07	49	25	26	33	33	34	27	63	10
T 3	K6	18-916	646.11	0.77	B	8.68	0.69	13.09	1.01	0.99	0.98	11.71	2.11	0.55	0.81	17.87	2.12	1.81	5.76	1.78	0.22	0.88	0.25	1.24	2.77	0.69	1.49	32.04	0.19	2.24	51	24	24	37	32	31	29	60	11

Tab.2 Calculated elemental ratios/normalized distribution of the Pleistocene lacustrine mudstones from the Qaidam Basin, China

Fig.4 (a) La/Yb vs. ΣREE illustrating source rocks of samples (after Allègre and Minster, 1978) and (b) Th/Sc vs. Zr/Sc illustrating weathering and sediment recycling (after McLennan et al., 1993).

Fig.5 (a) Th/Sc vs. Eu_anom (after McLennan et al., 1993; Cullers and Podkovyrov, 2002) and (b) La/Th vs. Hf (after Floyd and Leveridge, 1987) for sediments discrimination. Eu_anom = Eu_N/(Sm_N × Gd_N)^1/2.

Fig.6 Distributions of (a) Ni vs. Cr (fields are after Condie, 1993) and (b) Cr/V vs. Y/Ni (after Hiscott, 1984) for the studied samples.

Fig.7 (a) La-Th-Sc and (b) Th-Sc-Zr/10 (both after Bhatia and Crook, 1986) tectonic discrimination diagrams for the studied samples.

Fig.8 Ti/Zr vs. La/Sc diagram showing fields for tectonic settings (after Bhatia and Crook, 1986).

Fig.9 (a) Ternary diagram of Co-Ni-Zn showing fields of hydrothermal and hydrogenous sediments (after Crerar, 1980), (b) Eu/Sm vs. Sm/Yb, (c) Sm/Yb vs. Y/Ho and (d) Eu/Sm vs. Y/Ho showing the effect of hydrogenous deposits/seawater interaction with variable degrees of hydrothermal fluids (b, c and d after Alexander et al., 2008).

Fig.10 Distribution of (a) U/Th vs. Ni/Co, (b) V/Cr vs. V/(V + Ni), (c) Ce_anom vs. Mn_anom and (d) Pr_anom vs. Ce_anom (after Bau and Dulski, 1996) in the studied samples, showing paleoredox conditions. Mn_anom = log (Mn_n/Fe_n); Ce_anom = Ce_n/(0.5 × (La_n + Pr_n)), Pr_anom = Pr_n/(0.5 × (Ce_n + Nd_n)).

Fig.11 La_n/Yb_n vs. each accumulate rate of (a) original TOC, (b) bulk sample, (c) silicates and (d) carbonates for the studied samples. The accumulated rates are reported by Qiao et al., (2021).

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