1. National Engineering Lab for High-concentration Refractory Organic Wastewater, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China 2. Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China 3. College of Water Resources & Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China 4. Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA 5. School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
▪ Overviewed evolution and environmental applications of stabilized nanoparticles.
▪ Reviewed theories on particle stabilization for enhanced reactivity/deliverability.
▪ Examined various in situ remediation technologies based on stabilized nanoparticles.
▪ Summarized knowledge on transport of stabilized nanoparticles in porous media.
▪ Identified key knowledge gaps and future research needs on stabilized nanoparticles.
Due to improved soil deliverability and high reactivity, stabilized nanoparticles have been studied for nearly two decades for in situ remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated with organic pollutants. While large amounts of bench- and field-scale experimental data have demonstrated the potential of the innovative technology, extensive research results have also unveiled various merits and constraints associated different soil characteristics, types of nanoparticles and particle stabilization techniques. Overall, this work aims to critically overview the fundamental principles on particle stabilization, and the evolution and some recent developments of stabilized nanoparticles for degradation of organic contaminants in soil and groundwater. The specific objectives are to: 1) overview fundamental mechanisms in nanoparticle stabilization; 2) summarize key applications of stabilized nanoparticles for in situ remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated by legacy and emerging organic chemicals; 3) update the latest knowledge on the transport and fate of stabilized nanoparticles; 4) examine the merits and constraints of stabilized nanoparticles in environmental remediation applications; and 5) identify the knowledge gaps and future research needs pertaining to stabilized nanoparticles for remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater. Per instructions of this invited special issue, this review is focused on contributions from our group (one of the pioneers in the subject field), which, however, is supplemented by important relevant works by others. The knowledge gained is expected to further advance the science and technology in the environmental applications of stabilized nanoparticles.
Zhengqing Cai,Xiao Zhao,Jun Duan, et al. Remediation of soil and groundwater contaminated with organic chemicals using stabilized nanoparticles: Lessons from the past two decades[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.,
2020, 14(5): 84.
Fig.1 Schematic description of in situ remediation of TCE/PCBs and nitrobenzene by directly delivering stabilized nZVI into contaminated source zone.
Fig.2 Conceptualized illustration of nanoparticle aggregation and stabilization.
Fig.3 Effects of stabilizers on interactions between nanoparticles and target contaminants.
Fig.4 Mechanisms of reductive dechlorination of TCE by ZVI-based bimetallic nanomaterials (a) or sulfidated ZVI (b) (He et al., 2018).
1
B An, W Xie, D Zhao (2015). Advances in the Environmental Biogeochemistry of Manganese Oxides. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 155–168
2
B An, D Zhao (2012). Immobilization of As(III) in soil and groundwater using a new class of polysaccharide stabilized Fe-Mn oxide nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 211–212: 332–341 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.10.062
3
P Anderson (1956). On the ion adsorption properties of synthetic magnetite. Harwell, Berks: Gt. Brit. A tomic Energy Research Establishment
4
A Azzellino, L Colombo, S Lombi, V Marchesi, A Piana, M Andrea, L Alberti (2019). Groundwater diffuse pollution in functional urban areas: The need to define anthropogenic diffuse pollution background levels. Science of the Total Environment, 656: 1207–1222 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.416
5
D B Bacik, M Zhang, D Zhao, C B Roberts, M S Seehra, V Singh, N Shah (2012). Synthesis and characterization of supported polysugar-stabilized palladium nanoparticle catalysts for enhanced hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene. Nanotechnology, 23(29): 294004
6
K K Barnes, D W Kolpin, E T Furlong, S D Zaugg, M T Meyer, L B Barberd (2008). A national reconnaissance of pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States–I) Groundwater. Science of the Total Environment, 402(2–3): 192–200
7
P Bennett, F He, D Zhao, B Aiken, L Feldman (2010). In situ testing of metallic iron nanoparticle mobility and reactivity in a shallow granular aquifer. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 116(1–4): 35–46 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.05.006
8
Z Cai, A D Dwivedi, W N Lee, X Zhao, W Liu, M Sillanpää, D Zhao, C H Huang, J Fu (2018a). Application of nanotechnologies for removing pharmaceutically active compounds from water: development and future trends. Environmental Science. Nano, 5(1): 27–47 https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EN00644F
9
Z Cai, J Fu, P Du, X Zhao, X Hao, W Liu, D Zhao (2018b). Reduction of nitrobenzene in aqueous and soil phases using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 332: 227–236 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.09.066
10
J Chen, X Qiu, Z Fang, M Yang, T Pokeung, F Gu, W Cheng, B Lan (2012). Removal mechanism of antibiotic metronidazole from aquatic solutions by using nanoscale zero-valent iron particles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 181–182: 113–119 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.11.037
11
Y Cho, S I Choi (2010). Degradation of PCE, TCE and 1,1,1-TCA by nanosized FePd bimetallic particles under various experimental conditions. Chemosphere, 81(7): 940–945 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.07.054
12
S Comba, R Sethi (2009). Stabilization of highly concentrated suspensions of iron nanoparticles using shear-thinning gels of xanthan gum. Water Research, 43(15): 3717–3726 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.05.046
13
L Cuny, M P Herrling, G Guthausen, H Horn, M Delay (2015). Magnetic resonance imaging reveals detailed spatial and temporal distribution of iron-based nanoparticles transported through water-saturated porous media. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 182: 51–62 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2015.08.005
14
H Dong, Y Xie, G Zeng, L Tang, J Liang, Q He, F Zhao, Y Zeng, Y Wu (2016). The dual effects of carboxymethyl cellulose on the colloidal stability and toxicity of nanoscale zero-valent iron. Chemosphere, 144: 1682–1689
15
P Du, J Chang, H Zhao, W Liu, C Dang, M Tong, J Ni, B Zhang (2018). Sea-buckthorn-like MnO2 decorated titanate nanotubes with oxidation property and photocatalytic activity for enhanced degradation of 17β-estradiol under solar light. ACS Applied Energy Materials, 1(5): 2123–2133 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.8b00197
16
J Duan, H Ji, W Liu, X Zhao, B Han, S Tian, D Zhao (2019a). Enhanced immobilization of U(VI) using a new type of FeS-modified Fe0 core-shell particles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 359: 1617–1628 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.11.008
17
J Duan, H Ji, X Zhao, S Tian, X Liu, W Liu, D Zhao (2019b). Immobilization of U(VI) by stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles: Water chemistry effects, mechanisms, and long-term stability. Chemical Engineering Journal, 124692
18
L Duan, R Naidu, P Thavamani, J Meaklim, M Megharaj (2015). Managing long-term polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soils: A risk-based approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 22(12): 8927–8941 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2270-0
19
D W Elliott, W Zhang (2001). Field assessment of nanoscale bimetallic particles for groundwater treatment. Environmental Science & Technology, 35(24): 4922–4926 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0108584
20
D Fan, Y Lan, P G Tratnyek, R L Johnson, J Filip, D M O’carroll, A Nunez Garcia, A Agrawal (2017). Sulfidation of iron-based materials: A review of processes and implications for water treatment and remediation. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(22): 13070–13085 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04177
21
Y Gong, L Gai, J Tang, J Fu, Q Wang, E Y Zeng (2017). Reduction of Cr(VI) in simulated groundwater by FeS-coated iron magnetic nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment, 595: 743–751 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.282
22
Y Gong, Y Liu, Z Xiong, D Zhao (2014). Immobilization of mercury by carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles: Reaction mechanisms and effects of stabilizer and water chemistry. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(7): 3986–3994 https://doi.org/10.1021/es404418a
23
Y Gong, J Tang, D Zhao (2016a). Application of iron sulfide particles for groundwater and soil remediation: A review. Water Research, 89: 309–320 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.063
24
Y Gong, L Wang, J Liu, J Tang, D Zhao (2016b). Removal of aqueous perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) using starch-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment, 562: 191–200 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.100
25
Y Gong, D Zhao, Q Wang (2018). An overview of field-scale studies on remediation of soil contaminated with heavy metals and metalloids: Technical progress over the last decade. Water Research, 147: 440–460 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.10.024
26
X H Guan, Y K Sun, H J Qin, J X Li, I M C Lo, D He, H R Dong (2015). The limitations of applying zero-valent iron technology in contaminants sequestration and the corresponding countermeasures: The development in zero-valent iron technology in the last two decades (1994–2014). Water Research, 75: 224–248 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.02.034
27
B Han, W Liu, X Zhao, Z Q Cai, D Y Zhao (2017a). Transport of multi-walled carbon nanotubes stabilized by carboxymethyl cellulose and starch in saturated porous media: Influences of electrolyte, clay and humic acid. Science of the Total Environment, 599-600: 188–197 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.222
28
B Han, M Zhang, D Zhao (2017b). In-situ degradation of soil-sorbed 17β-estradiol using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized manganese oxide nanoparticles: Column studies. Environmental Pollution, 223: 238–246 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.01.018
29
B Han, M Zhang, D Zhao, Y Feng (2015). Degradation of aqueous and soil-sorbed estradiol using a new class of stabilized manganese oxide nanoparticles. Water Research, 70: 288–299 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.12.017
30
F He, Z Li, S Shi, W Xu, H Sheng, Y Gu, Y Jiang, B Xi (2018). Dechlorination of excess trichloroethene by bimetallic and sulfidated nanoscale zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(15): 8627–8637 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01735
31
F He, M Zhang, T W Qian, D Y Zhao (2009). Transport of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron nanoparticles in porous media: Column experiments and modeling. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 334(1): 96–102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2009.02.058
32
F He, D Zhao (2005). Preparation and characterization of a new class of starch-stabilized bimetallic nanoparticles for degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(9): 3314–3320 https://doi.org/10.1021/es048743y
33
F He, D Zhao (2007). Manipulating the size and dispersibility of zerovalent iron nanoparticles by use of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilizers. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(17): 6216–6221 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0705543
34
F He, D Zhao (2008). Hydrodechlorination of trichloroethene using stabilized Fe-Pd nanoparticles: Reaction mechanism and effects of stabilizers, catalysts and reaction conditions. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 84(3–4): 533–540 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2008.05.008
35
F He, D Zhao, J Liu, C B Roberts (2007). Stabilization of Fe-Pd nanoparticles with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for enhanced transport and dechlorination of trichloroethylene in soil and groundwater. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 46(1): 29–34 https://doi.org/10.1021/ie0610896
36
F He, D Zhao, C Paul (2010). Field assessment of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron nanoparticles for in situ destruction of chlorinated solvents in source zones. Water Research, 44(7): 2360–2370 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.12.041
37
G E Hoag, J B Collins, J L Holcomb, J R Hoag, M N Nadagouda, R S Varma (2009). Degradation of bromothymol blue by ‘greener’ nano-scale zero-valent iron synthesized using tea polyphenols. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 19(45): 8671–8677 https://doi.org/10.1039/b909148c
38
E M Hotze, T Phenrat, G V Lowry (2010). Nanoparticle aggregation: Challenges to understanding transport and reactivity in the environment. Journal of Environmental Quality, 39(6): 1909–1924 https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0462
39
J D Hu, Y Zevi, X M Kou, J Xiao, X J Wang, Y Jin (2010). Effect of dissolved organic matter on the stability of magnetite nanoparticles under different pH and ionic strength conditions. Science of the Total Environment, 408(16): 3477–3489 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.03.033
40
P Hu, C Guo, Y Zhang, J Lv, Y Zhang, J Xu (2019). Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of abused drugs and their metabolites in a typical urban river in north China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 56 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1140-5
41
H Y Jeong, K F Hayes (2007). Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene by mackinawite (FeS) in the presence of metals: Reaction rates. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(18): 6390–6396 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0706394
42
H D Ji, Y M Zhu, W Liu, M J Bozack, T W Qian, D Y Zhao (2019). Sequestration of pertechnetate using carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized FeS nanoparticles: Effectiveness and mechanisms. Colloids and Surfaces. A, Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 561: 373–380 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2018.10.048
43
L Jiang, C Huang, J Chen, X Chen (2009). Oxidative transformation of 17β-estradiol by MnO2 in aqueous solution. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 57(2): 221–229 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9257-8
44
R L Johnson, J T Nurmi, G S O’Brien Johnson, D M Fan, R L O’Brien Johnson, Z Shi, A J Salter-Blanc, P G Tratnyek, G V Lowry (2013). Field-scale transport and transformation of carboxymethylcellulose-stabilized nano zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(3): 1573–1580 https://doi.org/10.1021/es304564q
45
S H Joo, D Zhao (2008). Destruction of lindane and atrazine using stabilized iron nanoparticles under aerobic and anaerobic conditions: Effects of catalyst and stabilizer. Chemosphere, 70(3): 418–425 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.06.070
46
S R Kanel, R R Goswami, T P Clement, M O Barnett, D Zhao (2008). Two dimensional transport characteristics of surface stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles in porous media. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(3): 896–900 https://doi.org/10.1021/es071774j
47
B Karn, T Kuiken, M Otto (2009). Nanotechnology and in situ remediation: A review of the benefits and potential risks. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(12): 1813–1831 https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900793
48
E J Kim, J H Kim, A M Azad, Y S Chang (2011). Facile synthesis and characterization of Fe/FeS nanoparticles for environmental applications. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 3(5): 1457–1462 https://doi.org/10.1021/am200016v
49
E J Kim, K Murugesan, J H Kim, P G Tratnyek, Y S Chang (2013). Remediation of trichloroethylene by FeS-coated iron nanoparticles in simulated and real groundwater: Effects of water chemistry. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 52(27): 9343–9350 https://doi.org/10.1021/ie400165a
50
H J Kim, T Phenrat, R D Tilton, G V Lowry (2012). Effect of kaolinite, silica fines and pH on transport of polymer-modified zero valent iron nano-particles in heterogeneous porous media. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 370(1): 1–10 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2011.12.059
51
R Kretzschmar, M Borkovec, D Grolimund, M Elimelech (1999). Mobile subsurface colloids and their role in contaminant transport. Advances in Agronomy, 66(66): 121–193 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60427-7
52
C Lee, J Y Kim, W I Lee, K L Nelson, J Yoon, D L Sedlak (2008). Bactericidal effect of zero-valent iron nanoparticles on Escherichia coli. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(13): 4927–4933 https://doi.org/10.1021/es800408u
53
E Lefevre, N Bossa, M R Wiesner, C K Gunsch (2016). A review of the environmental implications of in situ remediation by nanoscale zero valent iron (nZVI): Behavior, transport and impacts on microbial communities. Science of the Total Environment, 565: 889–901 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.003
54
Q Liang, D Zhao (2014). Immobilization of arsenate in a sandy loam soil using starch-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 271: 16–23 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.01.055
55
Q Liang, D Zhao, T Qian, K Freeland, Y Feng (2012). Effects of stabilizers and water chemistry on arsenate sorption by polysaccharide-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 51(5): 2407–2418 https://doi.org/10.1021/ie201801d
56
C Liu, X Chen, E E Mack, S Wang, W Du, Y Yin, S A Banwart, H Guo (2019). Evaluating a novel permeable reactive bio-barrier to remediate PAH-contaminated groundwater. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 368: 444–451 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.01.069
57
J Liu, F He, E Durham, D Zhao, C B Roberts (2008). Polysugar-stabilized Pd nanoparticles exhibiting high catalytic activities for hydrodechlorination of environmentally deleterious trichloroethylene. Langmuir, 24(1): 328–336 https://doi.org/10.1021/la702731h
58
R Liu, D Zhao (2007). Reducing leachability and bioaccessibility of lead in soils using a new class of stabilized iron phosphate nanoparticles. Water Research, 41(12): 2491–2502 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.03.026
59
R Liu, D Zhao (2013). Synthesis and characterization of a new class of stabilized apatite nanoparticles and applying the particles to in situ Pb immobilization in a fire-range soil. Chemosphere, 91(5): 594–601 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.12.034
60
W Liu, S Tian, X Zhao, W Xie, Y Gong, D Zhao (2015). Application of stabilized nanoparticles for in situ remediation of metal-contaminated soil and groundwater: A critical review. Current Pollution Reports, 1(4): 280–291 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-015-0017-x
61
W Liu, X Zhao, Z Cai, B Han, D Zhao (2016). Aggregation and stabilization of multiwalled carbon nanotubes in aqueous suspensions: influences of carboxymethyl cellulose, starch and humic acid. RSC Advances, 6(71): 67260–67270 https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA10500A
62
Y Liu, C Zhang, D Hu, M S Kuhlenschmidt, T B Kuhlenschmidt, S E Mylon, R Kong, R Bhargava, T H Nguyen (2013). Role of collector alternating charged patches on transport of cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in a patchwise charged heterogeneous micromodel. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(6): 2670–2678 https://doi.org/10.1021/es304075j
63
S Mazloomi, S Nasseri, R Nabizadeh, K Yaghmaeian, K Alimohammadi, S Nazmara, A H Mahvi (2016). Remediation of fuel oil contaminated soils by activated persulfate in the presence of MnO2. Soil and Water Research, 11(2): 131–138 https://doi.org/10.17221/39/2015-SWR
64
S L Mcmanus, C Coxon, P E Mellander, K G Richards (2017). Hydrogeological characteristics influencing the occurrence of pesticides and pesticide metabolites in groundwater across the Republic of Ireland. Science of The Total Environment, 601–602: 594–602 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.082
65
MEE (2016). 2015 China’s Environmental Conditions Report. Beijing: Ministry of Ecology and Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China
66
M J Moran, J S Zogorski, P J Squillace (2007). Chlorinated solvents in groundwater of the United States. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(1): 74–81
67
MWR (2015). China's Water Resource Bulletin 2014. Beijing: Ministry of Water Resource of China
68
E C Njagi, H Huang, L Stafford, H Genuino, H M Galindo, J B Collins, G E Hoag, S L Suib (2011). Biosynthesis of iron and silver nanoparticles at room temperature using aqueous sorghum bran extracts. Langmuir, 27(1): 264–271 https://doi.org/10.1021/la103190n
69
D O’Carroll, B Sleep, M Krol, H Boparai, C Kocur (2013). Nanoscale zero valent iron and bimetallic particles for contaminated site remediation. Advances in Water Resources, 51: 104–122 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.02.005
70
D O’Connor, D Y Hou, Y S Ok, Y N Song, A K Sarmah, X R Li, F M G Tack (2018). Sustainable in situ remediation of recalcitrant organic pollutants in groundwater with controlled release materials: A review. Journal of Controlled Release, 283: 200–213 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.06.007
71
S F O’Hannesin, R W Gillham (1992). A permeable reaction wall for in situ degradation of halogenated organic compounds. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
72
F Obiri-Nyarko, S J Grajales-Mesa, G Malina (2014). An overview of permeable reactive barriers for in situ sustainable groundwater remediation. Chemosphere, 111: 243–259 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.03.112
73
T Phenrat, Y Liu, R D Tilton, G V Lowry (2009). Adsorbed polyelectrolyte coatings decrease Fe0 nanoparticle reactivity with TCE in water: Conceptual model and mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology, 43(5): 1507–1514 https://doi.org/10.1021/es802187d
74
T Phenrat, N Saleh, K Sirk, H J Kim, R D Tilton, G V Lowry (2008). Stabilization of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions by anionic polyelectrolytes: Adsorbed anionic polyelectrolyte layer properties and their effect on aggregation and sedimentation. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 10(5): 795–814 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-007-9315-6
75
T Phenrat, N Saleh, K Sirk, R D Tilton, G V Lowry (2007). Aggregation and sedimentation of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(1): 284–290 https://doi.org/10.1021/es061349a
76
J Quinn, C Geiger, C Clausen, K Brooks, C Coon, S O’hara, T Krug, D Major, W S Yoon, A Gavaskar, T Holdsworth (2005). Field demonstration of DNAPL dehalogenation using emulsified zero-valent iron. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(5): 1309–1318 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0490018
77
N Sakulchaicharoen, D M O’carroll, J E Herrera (2010). Enhanced stability and dechlorination activity of pre-synthesis stabilized nanoscale FePd particles. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 118(3–4): 117–127 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.09.004
78
N Saleh, H J Kim, T Phenrat, K Matyjaszewski, R D Tilton, G V Lowry (2008). Ionic strength and composition affect the mobility of surface-modified Fe0 nanoparticles in water-saturated sand columns. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(9): 3349–3355 https://doi.org/10.1021/es071936b
79
B Schrick, B W Hydutsky, J L Blough, T E Mallouk (2004). Delivery vehicles for zerovalent metal nanoparticles in soil and groundwater. Chemistry of Materials, 16(11): 2187–2193 https://doi.org/10.1021/cm0218108
80
P J Squillace, M J Moran (2007). Factors associated with sources, transport, and fate of volatile organic compounds and their mixtures in aquifers of the United States. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(7): 2123–2130 https://doi.org/10.1021/es061079w
81
H F Stroo, M Unger, C H Ward, M C Kavanaugh, C Vogel, A Leeson, J A Marqusee, B P Smith (2003). Peer reviewed: Remediating chlorinated solvent source zones. Environmental Science & Technology, 37(11): 224A–230A https://doi.org/10.1021/es032488k
82
C M Su (2017). Environmental implications and applications of engineered nanoscale magnetite and its hybrid nanocomposites: A review of recent literature. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 322: 48–84 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.06.060
83
B Sunkara, J Zhan, J He, G L Mcpherson, G Piringer, V T John (2010). Nanoscale zerovalent iron supported on uniform carbon microspheres for the in situ remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2(10): 2854–2862 https://doi.org/10.1021/am1005282
84
A L Swindle, A S E Madden, I M Cozzarelli, M Benamara (2014). Size-dependent reactivity of magnetite nanoparticles: A field-laboratory comparison. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(19): 11413–11420 https://doi.org/10.1021/es500172p
85
J Tang, W Zhu, R Kookana, A Katayama (2013) Characteristics of biochar and its application in remediation of contaminated soil. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 116(6): 653–659
86
T Tosco, J Bosch, R U Meckenstock, R Sethi (2012). Transport of ferrihydrite nanoparticles in saturated porous media: Role of ionic strength and flow rate. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(7): 4008–4015 https://doi.org/10.1021/es202643c
87
P G Tratnyek , A J Salter-Blanc, J T Nurmi, J E Amonette, J Liu, C Wang, A Dohnalkova, D R Baer (2011). Aquatic Redox Chemistry. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society,381–406
88
B D Turner, P J Binning, S W Sloan (2008). A calcite permeable reactive barrier for the remediation of fluoride from spent potliner (SPL) contaminated groundwater. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 95(3–4): 110–120 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2007.08.002
89
R Vignola, R Bagatin, A De Folly D’Auris, C Flego, M Nalli, D Ghisletti, R Millini, R Sisto (2011). Zeolites in a permeable reactive barrier (PRB): one year of field experience in a refinery groundwater-part 1: The performances. Chemical Engineering Journal, 178: 204–209 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.10.050
90
C B Wang, W X Zhang (1997). Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environmental Science & Technology, 31(7): 2154–2156 https://doi.org/10.1021/es970039c
91
T Wang, T Qian, D Zhao, X Liu, Q Ding (2020). Immobilization of perrhenate using synthetic pyrite particles: Effectiveness and remobilization potential. Science of the Total Environment, 725: 138423 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138423
92
W Zhang, W Wang , H Liang, D Gao (2019). Occurrence and fate of typical antibiotics in wastewater treatment plants in Harbin, North-east China. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 34
93
G Zhang, J Wei , J Luo, H Xue, D Huang, Z Cheng, X Jiang (2019). Nanoscale zero-valent iron supported on biochar for the highly efficient removal of nitrobenzene. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 61
94
Y T Wei, S C Wu, C M Chou, C H Che, S M Tsai, H L Lien (2010). Influence of nanoscale zero-valent iron on geochemical properties of groundwater and vinyl chloride degradation: A field case study. Water Research, 44(1): 131–140 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.09.012
95
WHO (2006). Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources. Geneva: World Health Organization
96
M Wiesner, J Y Bottero (2007). Environmental Nanotechnology. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing
97
J Wu, R J Zeng (2018). In situ preparation of stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticle-impregnated alginate composite for selenite remediation. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(11): 6487–6496 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b05861
98
T Xu, H Ji, Y Gu, T Tong, Y Xia, L Zhang, D Zhao (2020a). Enhanced adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid in water using iron (hydr)oxides/carbon sphere composite. Chemical Engineering Journal, 388: 124230 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124230
99
T Xu, Y Zhu, J Duan, Y Xia, T Tong, L Zhang, D Zhao (2020b). Enhanced photocatalytic degradation of perfluoroocanoic acid using carbon-modified bismuth phosphate composite: Effectiveness, material syntrgy and roles of carbon. Chemical Engineering Journal, 395: 124991 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.124230
100
M Zhang, D B Bacik, C B Roberts, D Zhao (2013). Catalytic hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene in water with supported CMC-stabilized palladium nanoparticles. Water Research, 47(11): 3706–3715 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.04.024
101
M Zhang, F He, D Zhao, X Hao (2011). Degradation of soil-sorbed trichloroethylene by stabilized zero valent iron nanoparticles: Effects of sorption, surfactants, and natural organic matter. Water Research, 45(7): 2401–2414 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.01.028
102
M Zhang, F He, D Y Zhao, X D Hao (2017). Transport of stabilized iron nanoparticles in porous media: Effects of surface and solution chemistry and role of adsorption. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 322: 284–291 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.12.071
103
X Zhao, W Liu, Z Cai, B Han, T Qian, D Zhao (2016). An overview of preparation and applications of stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles for soil and groundwater remediation. Water Research, 100: 245–266 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.019
104
Y Zhao, L Lin, M Hong (2019) Nitrobenzene contamination of groundwater in a petrochemical industry site. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 13: 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-019-1107-6
105
M Zheng, J Lu, D Zhao (2018a). Effects of starch-coating of magnetite nanoparticles on cellular uptake, toxicity and gene expression profiles in adult zebrafish. Science of the Total Environment, 622–623: 930–941 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.018
106
M Zheng, J Lu, D Zhao (2018b). Toxicity and transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses of adult zebrafish in response to exposure carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles. Scientific Reports, 8: 8083 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26499-x
107
T Zheng, J Zhan, J He, C Day, Y Lu, G L Mcpherson, G Piringer, V T John (2008). Reactivity characteristics of nanoscale zerovalent iron-silica composites for trichloroethylene remediation. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(12): 4494–4499 https://doi.org/10.1021/es702214x
108
J Zimmermann, L J S Halloran, D Hunkeler (2020). Tracking chlorinated contaminants in the subsurface using compound-specific chlorine isotope analysis: A review of principles, current challenges and applications. Chemosphere, 244: 125476 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125476
