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Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering

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Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.    2023, Vol. 17 Issue (7) : 79    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-023-1679-z
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Legacies and health risks of heavy metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins/furans at e-waste recycling sites in South China
Xu Zhao, Wei Li, Wei Wang, Jingjing Liu, Yunjiang Yu, Yang Li, Xichao Chen, Yun Liu()
State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China, Guangzhou 510655, China
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Abstract

● Heavy metals and organic toxins may persist in legacy sites for a long time.

● Contaminants pose potential harms to the nearby community (HI > 1).

● PCDD/Fs had the risk of endocrine disruption and reproductive risk.

● Further intervention is needed to reduce pollution and related risks.

Informal electronic-waste (e-waste) recycling sites pose substantial health risks to surrounding environments and populations, yet they are not properly regulated. In this study, the soil levels of copper, lead, cadmium, eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and 18 polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) were measured at two e-waste recycling sites in South China between 2014 and 2019. Both sites have been abandoned for natural restoration. Our results indicate that the mean Cd and PCDD/F levels at Site A in 2019 were higher than those recommended by current safety guidelines. Meanwhile, the highest exposure among children was 1.36 × 10−2 mg/(kg·d) for Cu, followed by 5.05 × 10−3 mg/(kg·d) for Pb, 9.71 ng/(kg·d) for PBDEs, and 6.82 ng TEQ/(kg·d) for PCDD/Fs. Children were at elevated risk for health problem posed by Pb and Cu exposure at both sites (hazard quotient > 1) and by PCDD/Fs at Site A. Further risk assessment was conducted on the target organs and endpoints of heavy metals and PCDD/Fs. The hazard index (HI) for the target organ mixed-risk of heavy metals was high (HI = 1.27), as was that of PCDD/Fs (HI = 1.66), which can disrupt endocrine function and pose a risk of reproductive toxicity in children. Owing to incomplete cleaning, contaminants persist in soils over long periods and may harm nearby environments and communities. Our study demonstrates that heavy metal, PBDE, and PCDD/F contamination have not yet been remediated, and intervention is needed to reduce pollution and associated risks in areas affected by e-waste.
Keywords E-waste      Human health risk      Organ risk      Heavy metal toxicity      PBDE      PCDD/F     
Corresponding Author(s): Yun Liu   
Issue Date: 03 February 2023
 Cite this article:   
Xu Zhao,Wei Li,Wei Wang, et al. Legacies and health risks of heavy metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins/furans at e-waste recycling sites in South China[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2023, 17(7): 79.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-023-1679-z
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2023/V17/I7/79
Fig.1  Workflow of exploring the human health risks of heavy metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/furans at e-waste recycling sites in South China.
Fig.2  Sampling locations of A (a) and B (b) e-waste sites in South China.
Exposure factors Values Reference
Adult (male) Adult (female) Children (aged 9–12)
ABS Pb (0.01); Cd (0.01); PBDEs (0.03); PCDD/Fs (0.10) Wu et al., 2015; US EPA, 2015
AF (mg/cm2 per event) 0.07 0.07 0.2 Zhao et al., 2012
AT (d) ED × 365 ED × 365 ED × 365 Zhao et al., 2012
BW (kg) 62.9 54.4 23.8 Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2016
CF (kg/mg) 1.00×10−6 1.00×10−6 1.00×10−6 –
ED (a) 24 24 6 Zhao et al., 2012
EF (d/a) 365 365 365 Zhao et al., 2012
EV (events/d) 1 1 1 –
Fexp 0.33 0.33 0.338 US EPA, 2015
IR (mg/d) 50 50 66 Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2016
SA (cm2) 17000 15000 9300 Ministry of Ecology and Environment, 2016
Tab.1  Summary of exposure factors for children aged 9–12 years and both male and female adults
Chemicals Site A Site B
2014 2019: L1–L5 2014 2019: H1–H5 2019: H6
Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range
Cd (mg/kg) 2.36 0.28–5.46 18.9 4.84–33.5 5.5 0.28–24.2 57.2 0.03–194 0.03
Cu (mg/kg) 560 51.9–1450 4478 1708–6271 1520 113–8490 2826 7–9660 5
Pb (mg/kg) 295 21.7–664 1664 417–2959 760 50.9–3970 505 198–847 120
PBDEs (ng/kg) – – 2722013 1058072–4657745 – – 27127 266–63411 824
　BDE-209 – – 87.09% 938486–4336507 – – 60.90% 169–38144 86.85%
　BDE-100 – – 0.58% 4486–30913 – – 13.00% 36.3–9455 1.91%
　BDE-154 – – 0.98% 6371–55012 – – 9.70% 26.7–7347 1.66%
PCDD/Fs (ng/kg) – – 247653 33828–514256 – – 682 333–974 2328
　1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF – – 26.64% 8281–136487 – – 11.50% 3.52–200 0.53%
　OCDF – – 11.08% 3571–57857 – – 14.10% 1.5–283 0.30%
　1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD – – 12.04% 4192–62463 – – 3.90% 2.94–54 0.62%
　OCDD – – 20.87% 8081–107995 – – 54.10% 136–2278 97.83%
I-TEQ (ng/kg) 1382 677–2458 12640 1654–26855 424 68–956 17.6 1.41–47.7 5.13
Tab.2  Concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Cu and Pb, mg/kg), PBDEs (ng/kg), and PCDD/Fs (ng/kg) in soil samples from Site A and Site B
Fig.3  Estimated average daily intake (ADI, mg/(kg·d)) of heavy metals (Cd, Cu and Pb), PBDEs and PCDD/Fs via dermal contact and ingestion of soil for children, male and female adults at A and B e-waste sites in 2019.
Fig.4  Estimated hazard quotients for heavy metals (Cd, Cu and Pb), PBDEs and PCDD/Fs via ingestion of soil for children, male and female adults at A and B e-waste sites.
Fig.5  Toxicity equivalent contribution ratio of 17 PCDD/Fs.
Endpoint Risk (HI)
Adult (male) Adult (female) Children (aged 9–12)
Acute toxicity 0.14 0.17 0.38
Repeated-dose toxicity 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carcinogenicity 0.06 0.07 0.17
Endocrine disruption 1.34 1.55 3.54
Reproductive toxicity 0.63 0.73 1.66
Tab.3  Risk of PCDD/Fs in male and female adults, and in children aged 9–12 for each endpoint
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