Locally enhanced electric field treatment (LEEFT) for water disinfection

doi:10.1007/s11783-020-1253-x

Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.

2020, Vol. 14

Issue (5) : 78 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-020-1253-x

REVIEW ARTICLE

Locally enhanced electric field treatment (LEEFT) for water disinfection

Jianfeng Zhou, Ting Wang, Cecilia Yu, Xing Xie(

)

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA

Download: PDF(1803 KB) HTML
Export: BibTeX | EndNote | Reference Manager | ProCite | RefWorks

Abstract

• Nanowire-assisted LEEFT is applied for water disinfection with low voltages.

• LEEFT inactivates bacteria by disrupting cell membrane through electroporation.

• Multiple electrodes and device configurations have been developed for LEEFT.

• The LEEFT is low-cost, highly efficient, and produces no DBPs.

• The LEEFT can potentially be applicable for water disinfection at all scales.

Water disinfection is a critical step in water and wastewater treatment. The most widely used chlorination suffers from the formation of carcinogenic disinfection by-products (DBPs) while alternative methods (e.g., UV, O₃, and membrane filtration) are limited by microbial regrowth, no residual disinfectant, and high operation cost. Here, a nanowire-enabled disinfection method, locally enhanced electric field treatment (LEEFT), is introduced with advantages of no chemical addition, no DBP formation, low energy consumption, and efficient microbial inactivation. Attributed to the lightning rod effect, the electric field near the tip area of the nanowires on the electrode is significantly enhanced to inactivate microbes, even though a small external voltage (usually<5 V) is applied. In this review, after emphasizing the significance of water disinfection, the theory of the LEEFT is explained. Subsequently, the recent development of the LEEFT technology on electrode materials and device configurations are summarized. The disinfection performance is analyzed, with respect to the operating parameters, universality against different microorganisms, electrode durability, and energy consumption. The studies on the inactivation mechanisms during the LEEFT are also reviewed. Lastly, the challenges and future research of LEEFT disinfection are discussed.

Keywords Water treatment Nanotechnology Pathogen inactivation Electroporation Nanowire Chemical-free

Corresponding Author(s): Xing Xie

Issue Date: 14 May 2020

Cite this article:

Jianfeng Zhou,Ting Wang,Cecilia Yu, et al. Locally enhanced electric field treatment (LEEFT) for water disinfection[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2020, 14(5): 78.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-020-1253-x
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2020/V14/I5/78

Fig.1 Theory of the locally enhanced electric field treatment (LEEFT) for microbial inactivation. (a) Electroporation on the cell membrane under a strong external electric field, (b) Schematic of the pulsed electric field treatment, (c) Schematic of the LEEFT. The applied voltage is reduced from several kV to serval V, (d) Electric field distribution near the surface of CuONW (diameter, 100 nm; length, 15 μm) in water showing the enhancement of the electric field strength (^{Liu et al., 2014}).

Fig.2 Electrode materials for LEEFT disinfection. (a–c) AgNW modified CNT composite (^{Liu et al., 2013}), (d–f) CuONW-Cu (^{Huo et al., 2016}), (g–i) Cu₃PNW-Cu (^{Huo et al., 2018}), (j–l) PDA-CuONW-Cu (^{Huo et al., 2019b}), (m–o) PDA-Cu₃PNW-Cu (^{Huo et al., 2019a}). The first line (a, d, g, j, & m) shows the schematic, second line (b, e, h, k, & n) the macrostructures, and third line (c, f, i, l, & o) the nanowires of the electrodes.

Fig.3 LEEFT devices. (a) The image of a flow-through LEEFT device with two porous electrodes, (b, c) Schematics show the porous electrodes ((b) for foam and (c) for mesh) modified with nanowires (^{Liu et al., 2013}, Huo et al., 2018), (d, e) The image and schematic of a coaxial-electrode LEEFT device, respectively (^{Zhou et al., 2019a}, ^{Zhou et al., 2019b}), (f) Electric field simulation on the cross-section of the coaxial-electrode device showing the non-uniform distribution of the electric field with a two-level strength enhancement (^{Zhou et al., 2019b}).

Fig.4 Disinfection performance of the LEEFT. (a) Quantitative measurement of model bacteria (E. coli and Bacillus subtilis as gram negative and positive bacteria examples, respectively) before and after the LEEFT by a standard microbial plating technique (^{Ding et al., 2019}), (b) E. coli inactivation efficiency with Cu₃PNW–Cu and Cu(OH)₂–Cu electrodes with different voltages (1, 2, 3, and 5 V) and different fluxes (from 1 to 16 m³/(h·m²)). Cu(OH)₂-Cu is an intermediate product of the Cu₃P-Cu electrode (^{Huo et al., 2018}), (c)Disinfection efficiency of E. hormaechei, E. durans, B. subtilis, and virus MS2 by PDA-Cu₃PNW-Cu electrodes with AC (peak voltage of 1 V; frequency of 10⁶ Hz) (^{Huo et al., 2019a}), (d) Long-term bacterial disinfection efficiency of the PDA-Cu₃PNW-Cu electrodes. The numbers after the electrodes (16 & 24) stand for the PDA coating time (^{Huo et al., 2019a}).

Fig.5 Disinfection mechanisms of the LEEFT. (a) Inactivation efficiency of E. coliusing CuONW-Cu and Cu_xONP-Cu showing enhanced performance by 1D nanowire structure (^{Liu et al., 2014}), (b) Inactivation efficiency of E. coli using a PDA-coated copper wire as the center electrode under 1 V applied voltage (^{Zhou et al., 2019a}), (c, d) Bright-field and fluorescence microscopy images of E. coli samples before (c) and after (d) LEEFT (Cu₃P-Cu electrodes) with a fixed voltage (1 V) and a fixed flux (2 m³/(h·m²)) (^{Huo et al., 2018}), (e) High-magnification SEM showing more than one pore formed on E. coli surface after LEEFT (AgNW-CNT composite, 20 V) (^{Liu et al., 2013}), (f) Cu release of the Cu₃PNW-Cu and PDA-Cu₃PNW-Cu electrodes during the long-term LEEFT (15 days; AC: peak voltage of 1 V, and frequency of 10⁶ Hz; flux: 4 m³/(h·m²)). ND (not detectable) indicates that the Cu concentration in the effluent is lower than the detection limit (0.1 mg/L) (^{Huo et al., 2019a}), (g) Inactivation efficiency for E. coli with an AC voltage of 1 V and different frequencies (from 1 to 3.5×10⁸ Hz) (^{Huo et al., 2018}), (h) When the E. coli sample passed through the PDA-CuONW electrodes with a fixed flux (1.8 m³/(h·m²)) and without applied voltage, no bacteria were inactivated (^{Huo et al., 2019b}).

1	O Akhavan, E Ghaderi (2010). Toxicity of graphene and graphene oxide nanowalls against bacteria. ACS Nano, 4(10): 5731–5736 https://doi.org/10.1021/nn101390x pmid: 20925398
2	F J Barba, O Parniakov, S A Pereira, A Wiktor, N Grimi, N Boussetta, J A Saraiva, J Raso, O Martin-Belloso, D Witrowa-Rajchert, N Lebovka, E Vorobiev (2015). Current applications and new opportunities for the use of pulsed electric fields in food science and industry. Food Research International, 77: 773–798 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2015.09.015
3	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1999). A Century of U.S. Water Chlorination and Treatment: One of the Ten Greatest Public Health Achievements of the 20th Century. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 48(29): 621–629 pmid: 10458535
4	B Y Chang, S M Park (2010). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry (Palo Alto, Calif.), 3(1): 207–229 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anchem.012809.102211 pmid: 20636040
5	Y Chang, D J Reardon, P Kwan, G Boyd, J Brant, K L Rakness, D Furukawa (2008). Evaluation of dynamic energy consumption of advanced water and wastewater treatment technologies. AWWA Research Foundation & California Energy Commission, Denver
6	K Cho, Y Qu, D Kwon, H Zhang, C A Cid, A Aryanfar, M R Hoffmann (2014). Effects of anodic potential and chloride ion on overall reactivity in electrochemical reactors designed for solar-powered wastewater treatment. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(4): 2377–2384 https://doi.org/10.1021/es404137u pmid: 24417418
7	M Deborde, U von Gunten (2008). Reactions of chlorine with inorganic and organic compounds during water treatment-Kinetics and mechanisms: A critical review. Water Research, 42(1-2): 13–51 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.025 pmid: 17915284
8	W Ding, J Zhou, J Cheng, Z Wang, H Guo, C Wu, S Xu, Z Wu, X Xie, Z L Wang (2019). TriboPump: A low-cost, hand-powered water disinfection system. Advanced Energy Materials, 9(27): 1901320 https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201901320
9	J F Edd, L Horowitz, R V Davalos, L M Mir, B Rubinsky (2006). In vivo results of a new focal tissue ablation technique: irreversible electroporation. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 53(7): 1409–1415 https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2006.873745 pmid: 16830945
10	C Flemming, J Trevors (1989). Copper toxicity and chemistry in the environment: A review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 44(1-2): 143–158 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00228784
11	C Gusbeth, W Frey, H Volkmann, T Schwartz, H Bluhm (2009). Pulsed electric field treatment for bacteria reduction and its impact on hospital wastewater. Chemosphere, 75(2): 228–233 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.11.066 pmid: 19168200
12	C N Haas, D Aturaliye (1999). Semi-quantitative characterization of electroporation-assisted disinfection processes for inactivation of Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 86(6): 899–905 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00725.x pmid: 10389240
13	Z Y Huo, H Liu, W L Wang, Y H Wang, Y H Wu, X Xie, H Y Hu (2019a). Low-voltage alternating current powered polydopamine-protected copper phosphide nanowire for electroporation-disinfection in water. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 7(13): 7347–7354 https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA10942G
14	Z Y Huo, H Liu, C Yu, Y H Wu, H Y Hu, X Xie (2019b). Elevating the stability of nanowire electrodes by thin polydopamine coating for low-voltage electroporation-disinfection of pathogens in water. Chemical Engineering Journal, 369: 1005–1013 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.03.146
15	Z Y Huo, Y Luo, X Xie, C Feng, K Jiang, J Wang, H Y Hu (2017). Carbon-nanotube sponges enabling highly efficient and reliable cell inactivation by low-voltage electroporation. Environmental Science. Nano, 4(10): 2010–2017 https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EN00558J
16	Z Y Huo, X Xie, T Yu, Y Lu, C Feng, H Y Hu (2016). Nanowire-modified three-dimensional electrode enabling low-voltage electroporation for water disinfection. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(14): 7641–7649 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b01050 pmid: 27341009
17	Z Y Huo, J F Zhou, Y Wu, Y H Wu, H Liu, N Liu, H Y Hu, X Xie (2018). A Cu 3p nanowire enabling high-efficiency, reliable, and energy-efficient low-voltage electroporation-inactivation of pathogens in water. Journal of Materials Chemistry. A, Materials for Energy and Sustainability, 6(39): 18813–18820 https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA06304D
18	C Jiang, R V Davalos, J C Bischof (2015). A review of basic to clinical studies of irreversible electroporation therapy. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 62(1): 4–20 https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2014.2367543 pmid: 25389236
19	T, Kotnik F Bobanovic, D Miklavčič (1997). Sensitivity of transmembrane voltage induced by applied electric fields—A theoretical analysis. Bioelectrochemistry (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 43(2): 285–291
20	T Kotnik, W Frey, M Sack, S Haberl Meglič, M Peterka, D Miklavčič (2015). Electroporation-based applications in biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology, 33(8): 480–488 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.06.002 pmid: 26116227
21	T Kotnik, L Rems, M Tarek, D Miklavčič (2019). Membrane electroporation and electropermeabilization: Mechanisms and models. Annual Review of Biophysics, 48(1): 63–91 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biophys-052118-115451 pmid: 30786231
22	C Liu, X Xie, W Zhao, N Liu, P A Maraccini, L M Sassoubre, A B Boehm, Y Cui (2013). Conducting nanosponge electroporation for affordable and high-efficiency disinfection of bacteria and viruses in water. Nano Letters, 13(9): 4288–4293 https://doi.org/10.1021/nl402053z pmid: 23987737
23	C Liu, X Xie, W Zhao, J Yao, D Kong, A B Boehm, Y Cui (2014). Static electricity powered copper oxide nanowire microbicidal electroporation for water disinfection. Nano Letters, 14(10): 5603–5608 https://doi.org/10.1021/nl5020958 pmid: 25247233
24	A Mizuno, T Inoue, S Yamaguchi, K I Sakamoto, T Saeki, Y Matsumoto, K Minamiyama (1990). Inactivation of viruses using pulsed high electric field: IEEE, 713–719
25	R D Morris, A M Audet, I F Angelillo, T C Chalmers, F Mosteller (1992). Chlorination, chlorination by-products, and cancer: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 82(7): 955–963 https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.82.7.955 pmid: 1535181
26	R Pethig, G H Markx (1997). Applications of dielectrophoresis in biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology, 15(10): 426–432 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7799(97)01096-2 pmid: 9351287
27	M J Plewa, E D Wagner, P Jazwierska, S D Richardson, P H Chen, A B McKague (2004). Halonitromethane drinking water disinfection byproducts: chemical characterization and mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Environmental Science & Technology, 38(1): 62–68 https://doi.org/10.1021/es030477l pmid: 14740718
28	M Poudineh, R M Mohamadi, A Sage, L Mahmoudian, E H Sargent, S O Kelley (2014). Three-dimensional, sharp-tipped electrodes concentrate applied fields to enable direct electrical release of intact biomarkers from cells. Lab on a Chip, 14(10): 1785–1790 https://doi.org/10.1039/c4lc00144c pmid: 24695906
29	J A Rojas-Chapana, M A Correa-Duarte, Z Ren, K Kempa, M Giersig (2004). Enhanced introduction of gold nanoparticles into vital Acidothiobacillus ferrooxidans by carbon nanotube-based microwave electroporation. Nano Letters, 4(5): 985–988 https://doi.org/10.1021/nl049699n
30	G Saldaña, I Álvarez, S Condón, J Raso (2014). Microbiological aspects related to the feasibility of PEF technology for food pasteurization. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 54(11): 1415–1426 https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.638995 pmid: 24580538
31	G Saulis (2010). Electroporation of cell membranes: The fundamental effects of pulsed electric fields in food processing. Food Engineering Reviews, 2(2): 52–73 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-010-9023-3
32	D T Schoen, A P Schoen, L Hu, H S Kim, S C Heilshorn, Y Cui (2010). High speed water sterilization using one-dimensional nanostructures. Nano Letters, 10(9): 3628–3632 https://doi.org/10.1021/nl101944e pmid: 20726518
33	D L Sedlak, U von Gunten (2011). Chemistry. The chlorine dilemma. Science, 331(6013): 42–43 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1196397 pmid: 21212347
34	M Shahini, J T Yeow (2013). Cell electroporation by CNT-featured microfluidic chip. Lab on a Chip, 13(13): 2585–2590 https://doi.org/10.1039/c3lc00014a pmid: 23511307
35	S Spilimbergo, F Dehghani, A Bertucco, N R Foster (2003). Inactivation of bacteria and spores by pulse electric field and high pressure CO2 at low temperature. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 82(1): 118–125 https://doi.org/10.1002/bit.10554 pmid: 12569631
36	M P Stewart, R Langer, K F Jensen (2018). Intracellular delivery by membrane disruption: mechanisms, strategies, and concepts. Chemical Reviews, 118(16): 7409–7531 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00678 pmid: 30052023
37	D P Tieleman, H Leontiadou, A E Mark, S J Marrink (2003). Simulation of pore formation in lipid bilayers by mechanical stress and electric fields. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 125(21): 6382–6383 https://doi.org/10.1021/ja029504i pmid: 12785774
38	USEPA (2009). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
39	C D Vecitis, M H Schnoor, M S Rahaman, J D Schiffman, M Elimelech (2011). Electrochemical multiwalled carbon nanotube filter for viral and bacterial removal and inactivation. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(8): 3672–3679 https://doi.org/10.1021/es2000062 pmid: 21388183
40	T Wang, H Chen, C Yu, X Xie (2019). Rapid determination of the electroporation threshold for bacteria inactivation using a lab-on-a-chip platform. Environment International, 132: 105040 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105040 pmid: 31387020
41	J C Weaver, Y A Chizmadzhev (1996). Theory of electroporation: A review. Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics, 41(2): 135–160 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0302-4598(96)05062-3
42	P Westerhoff, Y Yoon, S Snyder, E Wert (2005). Fate of endocrine-disruptor, pharmaceutical, and personal care product chemicals during simulated drinking water treatment processes. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(17): 6649–6663 https://doi.org/10.1021/es0484799 pmid: 16190224
43	J Zhou, T Wang, W Chen, B Lin, X Xie (2019a). Emerging investigator series: Locally enhanced electric field treatment (LEEFT) with nanowire modified electrodes for water disinfection in pipes. Environmental Science: Nano, Advance Article, https://doi.org/10.1039/c9en00875f
44	J Zhou, T Wang, X Xie (2019b). Rationally designed tubular coaxial-electrode copper ionization cells (CECICs) harnessing non-uniform electric field for efficient water disinfection. Environment International, 128: 30–36 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.072 pmid: 31029977

[1]	Yabing Meng, Depeng Wang, Zhong Yu, Qingyun Yan, Zhili He, Fangang Meng. *Genome-resolved metagenomic analysis reveals different functional potentials of multiple Candidatus* Brocadia species in a full-scale swine wastewater treatment system**[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2023, 17(1): 2-.
[2]	Shaoping Luo, Yi Peng, Ying Liu, Yongzhen Peng. Research progress and prospects of complete ammonia oxidizing bacteria in wastewater treatment[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(9): 123-.
[3]	Runyao Huang, Jin Xu, Li Xie, Hongtao Wang, Xiaohang Ni. Energy neutrality potential of wastewater treatment plants: A novel evaluation framework integrating energy efficiency and recovery[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(9): 117-.
[4]	Jinkai Xue, Seyed Hesam-Aldin Samaei, Jianfei Chen, Ariana Doucet, Kelvin Tsun Wai Ng. What have we known so far about microplastics in drinking water treatment? A timely review[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(5): 58-.
[5]	Yuqing Yan, Xin Wang. Integrated energy view of wastewater treatment: A potential of electrochemical biodegradation[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(4): 52-.
[6]	Zhida Li, Lu Lu. Wastewater treatment meets artificial photosynthesis: Solar to green fuel production, water remediation and carbon emission reduction[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(4): 53-.
[7]	Sen Dong, Peng Gao, Benhang Li, Li Feng, Yongze Liu, Ziwen Du, Liqiu Zhang. Occurrence and migration of microplastics and plasticizers in different wastewater and sludge treatment units in municipal wastewater treatment plant[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(11): 142-.
[8]	Yindong Tong, Xuejun Wang, James J. Elser. Unintended nutrient imbalance induced by wastewater effluent inputs to receiving water and its ecological consequences[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(11): 149-.
[9]	Neha Badola, Ashish Bahuguna, Yoel Sasson, Jaspal Singh Chauhan. Microplastics removal strategies: A step toward finding the solution[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(1): 7-.
[10]	Wei Shan, Bingbing Li, Haichuan Zhang, Zhenghao Zhang, Yan Wang, Zhiyang Gao, Ji Li. Distribution, characteristics and daily fluctuations of microplastics throughout wastewater treatment plants with mixed domestic–industrial influents in Wuxi City, China[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(1): 6-.
[11]	Kangying Guo, Baoyu Gao, Jie Wang, Jingwen Pan, Qinyan Yue, Xing Xu. Flocculation behaviors of a novel papermaking sludge-based flocculant in practical printing and dyeing wastewater treatment[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2021, 15(5): 103-.
[12]	Yunping Han, Lin Li, Ying Wang, Jiawei Ma, Pengyu Li, Chao Han, Junxin Liu. Composition, dispersion, and health risks of bioaerosols in wastewater treatment plants: A review[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2021, 15(3): 38-.
[13]	Wenyue Li, Min Chen, Zhaoxiang Zhong, Ming Zhou, Weihong Xing. Hydroxyl radical intensified Cu₂O NPs/H₂O₂ process in ceramic membrane reactor for degradation on DMAc wastewater from polymeric membrane manufacturer[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2020, 14(6): 102-.
[14]	Haiyan Yang, Shangping Xu, Derek E. Chitwood, Yin Wang. Ceramic water filter for point-of-use water treatment in developing countries: Principles, challenges and opportunities[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2020, 14(5): 79-.
[15]	Yang Yang. Recent advances in the electrochemical oxidation water treatment: Spotlight on byproduct control[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2020, 14(5): 85-.

Viewed

Full text

Abstract

Cited

Shared

Discussed