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Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.    2022, Vol. 16 Issue (1) : 7    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-021-1441-3
REVIEW ARTICLE
Microplastics removal strategies: A step toward finding the solution
Neha Badola1, Ashish Bahuguna2,3, Yoel Sasson2, Jaspal Singh Chauhan1()
1. Aquatic Biodiversity Lab, Department of Himalayan Aquatic Biodiversity, Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University (A Central University), Srinagar-Garhwal, Uttarakhand 246174, India
2. Casali Center for Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Israel
3. Department of Chemistry, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
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Abstract

• Physical, chemical and biological methods are explored for MPs removal.

• Physical methods based on adsorption/filtration are mostly used for MPs removal.

• Chemical methods of MPs removal work on coagulation and flocculation mechanism.

• MBR technology has also shown the removal of MPs from water.

• Global policy on plastic control is lacking.

Microplastics are an emerging threat and a big challenge for the environment. The presence of microplastics (MPs) in water is life-threatening to diverse organisms of aquatic ecosystems. Hence, the scientific community is exploring deeper to find treatment and removal options of MPs. Various physical, chemical and biological methods are researched for MPs removal, among which few have shown good efficiency in the laboratory. These methods also have a few limitations in environmental conditions. Other than finding a suitable method, the creation of legal restrictions at a governmental level by imposing policies against MPs is still a daunting task in many countries. This review is an effort to place all effectual MP removal methods in one document to compare the mechanisms, efficiency, advantages, and disadvantages and find the best solution. Further, it also discusses the policies and regulations available in different countries to design an effective global policy. Efforts are also made to discuss the research gaps, recent advancements, and insights in the field.
Keywords Aquatic      Coagulation      Microplastics      Plastic      Water Treatment Plant      Wastewater     
Corresponding Author(s): Jaspal Singh Chauhan   
Issue Date: 22 October 2021
 Cite this article:   
Neha Badola,Ashish Bahuguna,Yoel Sasson, et al. Microplastics removal strategies: A step toward finding the solution[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(1): 7.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-021-1441-3
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2022/V16/I1/7
Fig.1  Basic classification of MPs removal methods.
Sr. No. Method Principle Target MPs Efficiency Reference
Type Size (μm)
1. Sponge made of Chitin and Graphene oxide Adsorption Polystyrene, carboxylate-modified polystyrene and amine-modified polystyrene _ 89.8%, 72.4%, and 88.9% for neat polystyrene, carboxylate-modified polystyrene, and amine-modified polystyrene respectively Sun et al., 2020a
2. Zirconium metal-organic frameworks-based foam Filtration All MPs _ 95.5±1.2% Chen et al., 2020
3. Conventional dissolved air flotation and Positive modification Hydrophilic/ Hydrophobic interaction and charge attraction Polyethylene, Polyethylene terephthalate, Nylon 66/PA66 _ 32%–38% at 0.4–0.5 Wang et al., 2021
4. Magnetic Polyoxometalate-Supported Ionic Liquid Phases Adsorption Polystyrene 1 and 10 Over 90% Misra et al., 2020
5. Biochar Adsorbents (pine and spruce bark biochar) Adsorption All MPs _ 100% (Polyethylene particles) and nearly 100% (fleece fibers) Siipola et al., 2020
6. A non-fluorinated superhydrophobic aluminum surface Adsorption Polypropylene 262±4 99% Rius-Ayra & Llorca-Isern, 2021
7. Biochar filters Adsorption and filteration Polystyrene MPs spheres (microbeads 10 above 95% Wang et al., 2020b
8. Biofilter Gravitational filter All MPs >100 79%–89% Liu et al., 2020
9. Magnetic micro-submarines Induced fluid flow field All MPs 40 70% Sun et al., 2020b
10. Magnetic carbon nanotubes Adsorption All MPs _ 100% Tang et al., 2021
11. Primary Sedimentation Gravitational settling All MPs MPs with high density 40.7% Liu et al., 2019
12. Disc filter Retention All MPs >10 89% Simon et al., 2019
13. Electrocoagulation Flocculation and settling Polyethylene microbeads 300 − 355 90%−100% Perren et al., 2018
14. Rapid sand filter Filtration All MPs >20 97% Talvitie et al., 2017
15. Dissolved air flotation Flotation All MPs >20 95%
16. Disc filter Retention All MPs >20 40%–98.5% Talvitie et al., 2017
17. Coagulative colloidal gas aphrons Adsorption Carboxyl-modified poly-(methyl methacrylate) and unsurface-coated polystyrene ?5 94% Zhang et al., 2021
Tab.1  Physical methods for removal of MPs.
Fig.2  Comparison of sand filter and biochar filter. Reproduced with permission from the ref. (Wang et al., 2020b). Copyright 2020 Elsevier.
Fig.3  (A) Illustration of electrocoagulation reactor setup. (B) Diagrammatic representation of the process of electrocoagulation.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages References
Physical methods
Sponge made of Chitin and Graphene oxide Reusability, biocompatibility and biodegradability of the sponge enhance its suitability for treatment of MPs Difficult to scale up. Sun et al., 2020a
Zirconium metal-organic frameworks-based foam High efficiency in water or seawater conditions (with slight decrease).
Capable of removing numerous categories of MPs with different concentration from the MPs suspension.
Recyclable Foam.
Can be run on solar power.		 Only tested in laboratory so, large-quantity filtration tests are essential for the practical applications. Chen et al., 2020
Dissolved air flotation High efficiency. Only remove low-density particles. Talvitie et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2021
Magnetic Polyoxometalate-Supported Ionic Liquid Phases It can screen organic, inorganic, and microbial pollutants with MPs
Suitable for a large volume of water.
High efficiency.		 Efficiency specific to polystyrene type of MPs of size of 1 and 10μm. Misra et al., 2020
A non-fluorinated superhydrophobic aluminum surface High efficiency.
Efficiency higher than 99% for removal from the NaCl aqueous solution
Can be implemented in natural conditions.		 Efficiency only tested with MPs of size 262μm. Rius-Ayra & Llorca-Isern, 2021
Biochar filters of different materials Easy to make filters
Good efficiency.
High adsorption capacity.
Low cost of biochar production.
Low maintenance.		 Tested only for selected type and shape of MPs
Not efficient for reduction of micrometer-scale MPs particles		 Siipola et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020b
Magnetic carbon nanotubes High efficiency.
Reusability of magnetic carbon nanotubes.		 The efficiency slightly decreased with number of times used. Tang et al., 2021
Electrocoagulation Minimum sludge.
Energy efficient and cost-effective.
Flexibility to automation.
Less or no secondary pollution.
High efficiency.		 Need continuous electricity supply.
pH dependent.
High amount of Cl− ions in wastewater effects the removal capacity		 Perren et al., 2018
Rapid sand filter Suitable for all types of MPs.
Easy method
Low cost.		 Only effective on the size of MPs>20µm. Talvitie et al., 2017
Disc filter High efficiency. Large size plastics reduce efficiency by blocking the pores.
High maintenance.		 Talvitie et al., 2017
Coagulative colloidal gas aphrons High efficiency
Efficiency not affected by salinity.		 Size dependent efficiency. Zhang et al., 2021
Chemical methods
Coagulation/ flocculation with different chemicals (Alum, alum combined with cationic polyamine-coated sand, Polyaluminium chloride, ferric chloride, iron, aluminum and polyamine-based chemicals etc.) High efficiency.
Removes other pollutants also.
Easy to operate.		 Mostly investigated in laboratory.
Alkaline conditions and high stirring speed can affect efficiency.
Sometimes not efficient for the MPs with small-smooth-spherical surface.
Not efficient on smaller MPs.		 Ma et al., 2019; Rajala et al., 2020; Shahi et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020a; Zhou et al., 2021
Influence of linear and branched alkyltrichlorosilanes Good efficiency Efficiency in natural settings is still needed to be verified for widespread application
Efficient for MPs size in the range between 1 µm- 1mm.		 Sturm et al., 2020
Biological methods
Membrane bioreactor High efficiency
Easily implemented in waste water treatment plants		 Shape dependency of the removal percentage.
Membrane fouling		 Talvitie et al., 2017; Lares et al., 2018; Lv et al., 2019; Bayo et al., 2020
Conventional activated sludge Robust, cost-effective and flexible.
Can treat a wide range of influent concentrations,
Applicable for large-scale treatments		 Long retention times in the tank,
High cost of energy and the processing
Problem of sludge disposal.		 Lares et al., 2018
Tab.2  Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Fig.4  Process of coagulation/flocculation for MPs removal.
Name of method Principle Target MPs Efficiency Reference
Type Size
Alum coagulant and alum combined with cationic polyamine-coated sand Coagulation and flocculation Polyethylene 10–100 µm 70.7%–92.7% Shahi et al., 2020
Granular activated carbon Filtration All types 1–5 µm 56.8%–60.9% Wang et al., 2020a
Coagulation combined with sedimentation Coagulation and settling All types >10 μm
5–10 μm		 >99
40.5%–54.5%		 Wang et al., 2020a
Coagulation/flocculation with iron, aluminum and polyamine-based chemicals Coagulation and flocculation Polystyrene spheres 1 and 6.3 μm 95% for 1 μm MPs and above 76% for 6.3 μm MPs Rajala et al., 2020
Coagulation, flocculation by Al- and Fe-based salts Coagulation,
flocculation		 Polyethylene _ _ Ma et al., 2019
Influence of linear and branched alkyltrichlorosilanes Adsorption+ agglomeration+ filtration Low density polyethylene, High density polyethylene and Polypropylene based MPs 1 μm–1 mm 98.3±1.0% Sturm et al., 2020
Polyaluminum chloride and ferric chloride coagulation Coagulation Polystyrene and polyethylene _ _ Zhou et al., 2021
Photocatalysis Visible light-induced heterogeneous photocatalysis activated by zinc oxide nanorods Low-density polyethylene – 30% Tofa et al., 2019
Photocatalysis Degradation: green photocatalysis using a protein-based porous N-TiO2 semiconductor High density polyethylene 700 and 1000 μm _ Ariza-Tarazona et al., 2019
Ozone Chemical degradation All types _ 89.9% Hidayaturrahman and Lee, 2019
Alkoxy-silyl Induced Agglomeration Agglomeration Polyethylene, polypropylene Independent of the type, size, and amount – Herbort et al., 2018
Inorganic-organic hybrid silica gels Host-guest interactions Polyethylene, polypropylene, Polyethylene terephthalate _ _ Herbort and Schuhen, 2017
Tab.3  Chemical methods for removal of MPs.
Fig.5  Degradation of plastic particle by the action of microbes.
Microorganism Type of microorganism Type of plastics Efficiency Reference
Bacillus subtilis Bacteria Polyethylene 9.26% Vimala and Mathew, 2016
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, NCIM 1170 (F1) and Engyodontium album MTP091 Fungus Polypropylene, pro-oxidant blended and starch blended polypropylenes Approx. 18.8 and 9.42% gravimetric weight loss and 79 and 57% TGA weight loss Jeyakumar et al., 2013
Serratia marcescens marcescens Bacteria Linear Low-Density Polyethylene _ Odusanya et al., 2013
Rhodococcus ruber Bacteria Polyethylene 8% Orr et al., 2004
Chaetomium globosum Fungus Polyurethane _ Oprea and Doroftei, 2011
Bacillus sphericus Alt; Bacillus cereus BF20 Bacteria Low-Density Polyethylene film Weight loss 2.5%–10% Sudhakar et al., 2008
Zalerion maritimum Fungus Polyethylene pellets _ Paço et al., 2017
Alcanivorax borkumensis Bacteria Low-Density Polyethylene film Weight loss 3.5% Delacuvellerie et al., 2019
Cyanobacterial species like Phormidium lucidum and Oscillatoria subbrevis Bacteria Low-Density Polyethylene film _ Sarmah and Rout, 2019
Exiguobacterium sp. YT2 Bacteria Polystyrene film 7.5% Yang et al., 2015
Microbacterium sp. NA23; Paenibacillus urinalis NA26; Bacillus sp. NB6; Pseudomonas aeruginosa NB26 Bacteria Polystyrene film _ Atiq et al., 2010
Bacillus sp. Strain 27; Rhodococcus sp. Strain 36 Bacteria Polypropylene mps 4–6.4 Auta et al., 2018
Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus;
Brevibacillus agri; Brevibacillus sp.;
Brevibacillus brevis		 Bacteria Polypropylene film and pellets 22.8–27.0 Skariyachan et al., 2018
Stenotrophomonas panacihumi Bacteria Polypropylene film _ Jeon and Kim, 2016
Pseudomonas citronellolis Bacteria Plasticized PVC film 13 Giacomucci et al., 2019
Mycobacterium sp. NK0301 Bacteria Plasticized PVC film _ Nakamiya et al., 2005
Poliporus versicolor; Pleurotus sajor caju Fungus PVC film _ Kırbaş et al., 1999
Aspergillus sp. S45 Fungus Polyester PUR film 15–20 Osman et al., 2018
Penicillium sp. Fungus Impranil DLN; polyester/polyether PUR film 8.9 Magnin et al., 2019
Acinetobacter gerneri Bacteria Impranil DLN _ Howard et al., 2012
Bacillus muralis Bacteria Polyethylene terephthalate _ Narciso-Ortiz et al., 2020
Zalerion maritimum Fungus Polyethylene 43% Paço et al., 2017
Rhodococcus ruber Bacteria Polyethylene 8% Orr et al., 2004
Tab.4  List of Microorganisms employed for MPs removal.
Fig.6  (A) Adsorption mechanism in Tridacna maxima (B) Different organisms showing presence of MPs (a) Acropora hemprichii, (b) Goniastrea retiformis and (c) Pocillopora verrucosa (d) magnified image of Pocillopora verrucosa. Reproduced and modified from the ref. (Arossa et al., 2019) and (Martin et al., 2019). Copyright 2019 Elsevier.
Sr. No. Name of method Principle Target MPs Efficiency Reference
Type Size
1 Microalgal-based biopolymer Aggregation and flocculation Polystyrene nano- and MPs <300 µm Potential to removal nano or MPs Cunha et al., 2020
2 Anaerobic-Anoxic-Oxic Microbial biodegradation All types 25–104 µm 93.7 Edo et al., 2020
3 MBR Microbial biodegradation MPs polyvinylchloride 99.5% Lv et al., 2019
4 Oxidation ditch Microbial biodegradation Polyethylene terephthalate, Polystyrene Polyethylene Polypropylene >500 mm and between 62.5 and 125 mm 97 Lv et al., 2019
5 MBR Microbial biodegradation All MPs 0.5–1mm 99.4% Lares et al., 2018
6 Conventional activated sludge Microbial biodegradation All MPs 0.5–1mm 98.3% Lares et al., 2018
7 MBR Microbial biodegradation All MPs >20 μm 99.9% Talvitie et al., 2017
8 MBR Microbial biodegradation All MPs _ 79.01% Bayo et al., 2020
Tab.5  Biological methods for removal of MPs
Fig.7  General structure of a MBR unit.
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