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Frontiers of Earth Science

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Front. Earth Sci.    2021, Vol. 15 Issue (2) : 406-422    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11707-020-0850-0
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Environmental risks of shale gas exploitation and solutions for clean shale gas production in China
Shikui GAO1, Quanzhong GUAN2(), Dazhong DONG3, Fang HUANG1
1. School of Economics and Management, China University of Geoscience (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
2. College of Energy, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China
3. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China
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Abstract

Shale gas is a relatively clean-burning fossil fuel, produced by hydraulic fracturing. This technology may be harmful to the environment; therefore, environmentally friendly methods to extract shale gas have attracted considerable attention from researchers. Unlike previous studies, this study is a comprehensive investigation that uses systematic analyses and detailed field data. The environmental challenges associated with shale gas extraction, as well as measures to mitigate environmental impacts from the source to end point are detailed, using data and experience from China’s shale gas production sites. Environmental concerns are among the biggest challenges in practice, mainly including seasonal water shortages, requisition of primary farmland, leakage of drilling fluid and infiltration of flowback fluid, oil-based drill cuttings getting buried underground, and induced seismicity. China’s shale gas companies have attempted to improve methods, as well as invent new materials and devices to implement cleaner processes for the sake of protecting the environment. Through more than 10-year summary, China’s clean production model for shale gas focuses on source pollution prevention, process control, and end treatment, which yield significant results in terms of resource as well as environmental protection, and can have practical implications for shale gas production in other countries, that can be duplicated elsewhere.
Keywords shale gas      clean production      resource saving      environmentally friendly      China     
Corresponding Author(s): Quanzhong GUAN   
Just Accepted Date: 23 November 2020   Online First Date: 08 January 2021    Issue Date: 26 October 2021
 Cite this article:   
Shikui GAO,Quanzhong GUAN,Dazhong DONG, et al. Environmental risks of shale gas exploitation and solutions for clean shale gas production in China[J]. Front. Earth Sci., 2021, 15(2): 406-422.
 URL:  
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fesci/EN/10.1007/s11707-020-0850-0
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fesci/EN/Y2021/V15/I2/406
CHN–WY–ZHT base Fuling base Total
Area/km2 529.33 575.92 10455
Technically recoverable reserves/108 m3 1062.86 1432.58 2495
Cumulative output/108 m3 112.31 214.53 326.84
Producer PetroChina Sinopec
Tab.1  China’s two shale gas production bases
Production area Lateral length per well
/m		 Fluid amount per meter
/(m3·m−1)		 Fluid amount per well
/m3
Sichuan 1591 32 50,912
Chongqing 1500 30 4,500
Tab.2  Average amount of fracturing fluid used per well in 2018
Block or well Fluid amount per well/m3
WEI 202 65063
WEI 204 66066
Wells in Changning 85323
Zhao YS113H1-7 88059
Tab.3  Maximum amount of fracturing fluid used per well in 2019
Chongqing Sichuan Yunnan Guizhou Total
D&C wells (as of 2018, 6 years in total) 477 469 3 3 952
Water consumption for shale gas/(104 m3) 2146.5 2110.5 13.5 13.5 4284
Industrial water consumption in 2018 (only one year)/(108 m3) 30.37 14.01 7.405 25.19 76.975
Proportion/% 0.71 1.51 0.018 0.0054 0.56
Tab.4  Shale gas drilling and completion (D&C) wells and water consumption
Fig.1  Comparison of arable land area per capita/m2
Fig.2  Statistics of drilling platforms in the Fuling Play (Xiong et al., 2016a)
Shale gas field Fuling CHN–WY–ZHT
Platforms 71 65
Wells 235 388
Temporary/km2 Forest land 73.928 212.513
Agricultural land 171.48 344.577
Other land 17.392
Total 262.8 557.09
Permanent/km2 Agricultural land Primary farmland 0.1873 0.279
Other 0.1732 0.186
Total 0.3605 0.465
Area per pad/ha 114.3 160.95
Crop loss per pad/ton 5.18 7.30
Tab.5  Land occupation of shale gas production bases in China
Fig.3  Water life cycle during shale gas extraction.
Additive Example of the chemical
Acids Hydrochloric acid
Antimicrobials Glutaraldehyde
Corrosion inhibitors N, N-dimethylformamide
Cross-linkers Sodium carbonate/potassium carbonate
Deoxidants Ammonium
Disincrustants Glycol
Drag reducers Petroleum Distillates
Gel breakers Sodium chloride
Iron ion inhibitors 2-hydroxyl - 1,2,3- tricarballylic acid
Proppants Silica, quartz sand
Tackifiers Guar gum, hydroxyethyl cellulose
Tab.6  Main additives of fracturing fluid used in CHN–WY (adapted from Huang, 2019)
Fig.4  Flowback and produced water (FPW) characterization (Mohammad-Pajooh et al., 2018).
Metal cation/(mg·L−1) Ning 201-H1 Ning 201-H2 Ning 201-H3
K+ 418.48 464.9 460.28
Na+ 4,839.06 6,292.01 6,601.55
Ca2+ 549.22 1,843.23 930.00
Mg2+ 143.01 285.23 282.64
Fe3+ 17.81 6.79 23.22
Sr2+ 213.00 301.20 313.41
Cr3+ 0.11 0.04 0.03
Zn2+ 0.13 0.19 0.18
Mn2+ 4.09 8.63 100.10
Hg2+ 20.45 33.31 34.08
pH 6.94 6.96 6.71
Tab.7  Metal elements and pH value of flowback in Well Ning 201 (Lu et al., 2016)
Stage Possible risks
Chemical mixing Chemical spills, surface water and/or groundwater contamination
Well injection Casing failure or induced fractures in the rocks, serving as a pathway for HF fluid migration into water resources
Flowback Surface spills, infiltration into the ground from the reserve pits or tanks, and leaks from pipes
Wastewater treatment and disposal Spills and leakage during on-site treatment, storage, and transportation to off-site treatment facilities or disposal
Discharge or reinjection Inability of the treatment plants to effectively eliminate contaminants, which can reach streams and impair drinking water sources
Tab.8  Possible risks associated with water (Sun et al., 2019)
Play Period Well Fracturing fluid volume/m3 Flowback volume/m3 Flowback rate /%
Changning 2009–2018 107 42,658 14,612 35.2
Weiyuan 2014–2018 152 38,991 20,504 52.6
Zhaotong 2014–2018 86 41,872 10,503 25.3
Tab.9  Fracture flowback volumes in shale gas field in Sichuan
WBDC Wastewater-based mud OBDC Pyrolysis residue of OBDC Source
Fuling 450–600 220–270 200–300 150–200 Mei et al. (2016)
CHN–WY–ZHT 610 330–450 260–350 120–220 Huo et al. (2019)
Tab.10  Solid waste volumes from a single well in each shale gas field/m3
Exhaust-associated/produced water Shale gas directly released during gas processing Exhaust from cleaning/gas tube
Fuling 2–5 m3/time — 1000 m3/time
CHN–WY–ZHT 2–5 m3/time 62500 m3/(time·year) 10–25 m3/(time·tube)
Tab.11  Main routes of methane emissions in shale gas fields (Yang et al., 2019)
Sichuan Basin Shale plays
2012–2014 2.8–7.0/3.46 (422) 2.8–5.3/3.53 (57)
2015–2020 June 1.4–7.0/3.35 (536) 1.9 – 6.0/3.36 (273)
Total 1.7–7.0/3.39 (958) 1.9 – 6.0/3.39 (330)
Tab.12  Earthquakes in the Sichuan Basin and its shale plays
Sound source Sound power of a single device/dB
Pre-drilling: earth-rock construction
bulldozer 96
Drilling: drilling well
diesel motors 113
rig 95
mud pump 90
vibrating screen 90
centrifuge 90
air compressor 95
supercharger 100
Post-drilling: hydraulic fracturing
fracturing truck 100
Tab.13  Noise sources associated with shale gas development in the Sichuan Basin
Fig.5  Aerial photograph of reclamation effect on farmland.
Fig.6  Schematic diagram of shallow drilling structure to protect underground water reservoirs.
Fig.7  Flow diagram of water treatment in shale gas field.
Fig.8  Rain–sewage diversion system (adapted from Huang, 2019 and Sun et al., 2017)
Fig.9  Flow diagram of drilling fluid waste disposal (adapted from Wei et al., 2018).
Fig.10  Flow diagram of treatment of fracturing flowback fluid.
Water quality pH r (total iron)
/(mg·L−1)		 COD/mg·L−1 r (petroleum)
/(mg·L−1)		 r (TSS)/(mg·L−1)
Before treatment 7.8 12.2 287 22.68 73
After treatment 7.3 0.8 98.4 1.14 29.75
Tab.14  Water quality before and after treatment
Gas field Period Flowback volume/m3 Reuse volume/m3 Reuse rate/%
Changning 2014–2018 1563503 1128926 60.3
Weiyuan 2015–2018 1931759 2549744 75.8
Zhaotong 2014–2018 521618 343492 65.9
Tab.15  Return and reuse of fracturing fluid in the Sichuan Basin
Fig.11  Flow diagram of the treatment of WBDC and oil-based drill cuttings (OBDC).
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