Toward sustainable waste management in small islands developing states: integrated waste-to-energy solutions in Maldives context

doi:10.1007/s11783-024-1784-7

Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.

2024, Vol. 18

Issue (2) : 24 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-024-1784-7

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Toward sustainable waste management in small islands developing states: integrated waste-to-energy solutions in Maldives context

Yao Wang¹, Alejandro Ruiz-Acevedo², Eemaan Rameez², Vijaya Raghavan³, Abid Hussain⁴(

), Xunchang Fei¹(

)

¹. School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
². United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS), United Nations Building, Buruzu Magu, Male’ 20184, Maldives
³. Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Ste-Anne-De-Bellevue, Quebec H9X 3V9, Canada
⁴. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6H9X 3V9, Canada

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Abstract

● Maldives’ unique natural and socioeconomic status cause waste management challenges.

● Context-specific solutions needed for sustainable waste management in Maldives.

● Waste management practices differ greatly between Male’ city and outer islands.

● Waste incineration in Male’ will double Maldives’ renewable energy supply.

● Decentralized anaerobic digestion proposed for outer islands to recover energy.

Effective waste management is a major challenge for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) like Maldives due to limited land availability. Maldives exemplifies these issues as one of the most geographically dispersed countries, with a population unevenly distributed across numerous islands varying greatly in size and population density. This study provides an in-depth analysis of the unique waste management practices across different regions of Maldives in relation to its natural and socioeconomic context. Data shows Maldives has one of the highest population density and per capita waste generation among SIDS, despite its small land area and medium GDP per capita. Large disparities exist between the densely populated capital Male’ with only 5.8 km² area generating 63% of waste and the ~194 scattered outer islands with ad hoc waste management practices. Given Male’s dense population and high calorific waste, incineration could generate up to ~30 GW/a energy and even increase Maldives’ renewable energy supply by 200%. In contrast, decentralized anaerobic digestion presents an optimal solution for outer islands to reduce waste volume while providing over 40%–100% energy supply for daily cooking in local families. This timely study delivers valuable insights into designing context-specific waste-to-energy systems and integrated waste policies tailored to Maldives’ distinct regions. The framework presented can also guide other SIDS facing similar challenges as Maldives in establishing sustainable, ecologically sound waste management strategies.

Keywords Anaerobic digestion Waste incineration Waste management Maldives Small Island Developing States Waste-to-energy

Corresponding Author(s): Abid Hussain,Xunchang Fei

About author: Peng Lei and Charity Ngina Mwangi contributed equally to this work.

Issue Date: 07 November 2023

Cite this article:

Yao Wang,Alejandro Ruiz-Acevedo,Eemaan Rameez, et al. Toward sustainable waste management in small islands developing states: integrated waste-to-energy solutions in Maldives context[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2024, 18(2): 24.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-024-1784-7
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2024/V18/I2/24

Tab.1 Energy potential from anaerobic digestion of kitchen waste and animal manure in Maldives

Fig.1 Socio-economic status and MSW generation in 51 SIDS. (a) Waste generation versus Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of 236 countries and regions in seven major regions and SIDS in the world, which are classified according to the World Bank: East Asia and Pacific (EAP), Europe and Central Asia (ECA), Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), Middle East and North Africa (MENA), North America (NA), South Asia (SAR), and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Other socio-economic indicators including (b) area, (c) population, (d) MSW generation per capita, (e) GDP per capita, and (f) population density of 51 SIDS are also illustrated (Kaza et al., 2018).

Fig.2 Grouping of SIDS according to their population density and GDP/capita.

Fig.3 Waste management practices versus GDP/capita in the SIDS in different groups: (a) MSW generation per capita per day, (b) weight percentage of organic waste, (c) weight percentage of recyclable and incinerable waste (paper and plastics), (d) weight percentage of recyclable and non-incinerable waste (glass, metal, etc.), (e) percentage of MSW landfilling, and (f) percentage of MSW recycling.

Fig.4 (a) Annual MSW generation in the whole Maldives, Male’, other islands, and resorts (Kaza et al., 2018; UNEP, 2019; UNSCAP, 2021), and (b) MSW/capita versus PD in Male’, other islands, and the other SIDS and regions.

Fig.5 MSW generation and disposal methods in the three regions in Maldives: MSW composition in (a) Region 1, (b) Region 2, and (c) Region 3; MSW disposal methods in (d) Region 2 and (e) Region 3.

Country	Region	Category	AD practices	Incineration practices	Ref.
Mauritius	AIMS	Low GDP, High PD	A large-scale biogas plant for sludge treatment	Initiated a 300000 t/a WtE plant but abandoned due to protest, two small WtE plants operating	Bundhoo et al. (2016); Neehaul et al. (2020)
Seychelles	AIMS	High GDP, Low PD	Multiple biogas plants on animal farms	An incinerator treating oil and hospital waste; expects to set up a MSW WtE plant	Martin (2010); REEEP (2012); Bonnelame (2022)
Singapore	AIMS	High GDP, High PD	A few biogas plants for household waste treatment	Four WtE plants treating over 4000000 t/a of MSW, expect to build a new integrated WtE facility in 2027	Mohee et al. (2015); NEA (2019)
Belize	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	Small-scale animal manure digestion	Not available	Ortega (2009)
Guyana	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	~30 anaerobic digesters in farms	Not available	Rooplall (2017)
Suriname	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	Not available	Two small-scale incinerators treating hospital waste	Zuilen (2006)
Cuba	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	~700 small digestors for organic waste treatment, 450 new in build	Not available	Karagiannidis (2012); González Lorente et al. (2020)
Dominican Republic	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	~20 anaerobic digesters in pig and chicken farms	Not available	Flores (2016)
Grenada	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	Not available	Not available	Grenada (2017)
Haiti	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	A few anaerobic digestors for agricultural waste treatment, small, cheap biodigesters built at home level	Not available	Toussaint & Wilkie (2011)
Jamaica	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	~120 digestors for treating garden and kitchen waste	Not available	Karagiannidis (2012)
Saint Lucia	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	Up to 9% of the total energy generated from biogas	Not available	Holder et al. (2020)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Caribbean	Low GDP, Low PD	Up to 8% of the total energy generated from biogas	Not available	Holder et al. (2020)
Bahamas	Caribbean	High GDP, Low PD	A 2 m³/week anaerobic digestor	Not available	Holder et al. (2020)
Antigua and Barbuda	Caribbean	High GDP, Low PD	Plan to develop a bioreactor system to produce electricity	Not available	Holder et al. (2020); Silva-Martínez et al. (2020)
British Virgin Islands	Caribbean	High GDP, Low PD	Not available	Incineration is the main waste disposal method	Mcdevitt (2008)
Barbados	Caribbean	High GDP, High PD	Up to 18% of the total energy generated from biogas	Not available	Holder et al. (2020)
Fiji	Pacific	Low GDP, Low PD	Nine biogas plants; a new national WtE initiative for AD implementation	Not available	Holder et al. (2020)
Papua New Guinea	Pacific	Low GDP, Low PD	A pilot-scale anaerobic digestor treating farm waste	Not available	Jenangi (1998)
Samoa	Pacific	Low GDP, Low PD	Abandoned a few biogas plants	Abandoned an incineration plant	Isaka et al. (2013)
Tuvalu	Pacific	Low GDP, Low PD	A biogas plant treating pig and human sewage	Not available	Rosillo-Calle & Woods (2003)
Federated States of Micronesia	Pacific	Low GDP, High PD	Not available	An incinerator treating medical waste	Joseph & Prasad (2020); Jackson (2021)

Tab.2 Reported WtE practices in SIDS

Tab.3 Potential energy capacity from MSW incineration in Region 1 (Male’)

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