Navigating the environmental, economic and social impacts of sustainable agriculture and food systems: a review
Rosli Muhammad NAIM1, Maisarah Abdul MUTALIB1(), Aida Soraya SHAMSUDDIN2, Mohd Nizam LANI3, Indang Ariati ARIFFIN4, Shirley Gee Hoon TANG5
. School of Graduate Studies, Management & Science University, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia . Southeast Asia Disaster Prevention Research Initiative (SEADPRI), Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia . Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia . International Medical School, Management & Science University, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia . Center for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies (CORE), Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
The escalating recognition of sustainable agriculture and food systems is a response to the multifaceted challenges of food insecurity, climate change, environmental deterioration and economic pressures. In this review, sustainable agriculture is characterized as an array of farming practices that effectively address immediate demands, while simultaneously safeguarding the potential of future generations to fulfill their needs. The primary objectives include sustained productivity, pollution reduction, and economic viability and sustainability. Sustainable food systems incorporate dimensions beyond production, including processing, distribution, consumption patterns, and waste management along the entire food supply chain. An abundance of research underscores the manifold benefits offered by sustainable agriculture and food systems to society at large. These advantages include fostering climate resilience, curbing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing water quality, promoting biodiversity, enriching soil fertility, fortifying rural livelihoods and nurturing community well-being. Nevertheless, the path toward sustainability is strewn with significant challenges. These include substantial costs involved in transitioning, conflicts in policy objectives, and the pervasive influence of traditional methods. Achieving sustainability requires the execution of holistic strategies that traverse various sectors and scales. Accelerating this progress can be facilitated through the adoption of diverse strategies, including agroforestry, agroecology, urban agriculture, farmer knowledge exchange, ecosystem service payments and supply chain shortening. However, the success of these strategies hinges on the provision of appropriate policies and incentives. Further research is vital to ascertain the ideal conditions for implementing specific interventions and to assess the comprehensive expenses and benefits linked to them. This review emphasizes the assertion that widespread adoption of sustainable practices in agriculture and interconnected food systems has positive impacts in terms of community nutrition, conservation of natural resources and long-term economic progress.
Just Accepted Date: 27 February 2024Online First Date: 11 March 2024Issue Date: 12 November 2024
Cite this article:
Rosli Muhammad NAIM,Maisarah Abdul MUTALIB,Aida Soraya SHAMSUDDIN, et al. Navigating the environmental, economic and social impacts of sustainable agriculture and food systems: a review[J]. Front. Agr. Sci. Eng. ,
2024, 11(4): 652-673.
Fig.1 Sustainable agriculture is a comprehensive approach, assigning equal importance to environmental, social and economic factors within the agricultural sector.
Practice
Description key information
Advantages
Disadvantages
Reference
Agroforestry
Agroforestry is the integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural systems involving crops and animals. By merging agricultural and forestry technologies, agroforestry cultivates land-use systems that are diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land use systems
· High investment and establishment costs· Complex planning and design· Increased competition for sunlight, water and nutrients· Potential harbor for pest species· Unfamiliarity among farmers· Delayed returns on investment· Requires long-term land tenure
[6,25,49]
Community supported agriculture
Involves consumers purchasing a share or subscription to a local farm’s harvest in advance of the growing season. The customers then receive a weekly portion of produce, meat, dairy or other farm products throughout the season as they are harvested
· Supports small local farms· Provides fresh produce to community· Promotes farmer-consumer relationships· Encourages seasonal/local eating· Lowers farmer marketing costs· Shares production risks· Contributes to local food security/sustainability· Reduces long supply chains and food miles· Offers organic/sustainable options
· Can be costly for consumers· Requires coordination for share pick-up· Leads to some food waste· Provides less choice and consistency· Limited to seasonal availability· Can be logistically challenging for farmers· Delivers raw produce requiring prep· Shares must be purchased upfront· Not as convenient as grocery shopping
[90–93]
Farm-to-school programs
Programs connect schools with local farms to serve healthy, local foods in school cafeterias. This include activities such as purchasing and featuring local farm products in school meals, offering food, agriculture, nutrition education and establishing school gardens
· Provides fresh, nutritious meals to students· Supports local farmers and the food economy· Reduces carbon footprint through local sourcing· Connects children to where food comes from· Promotes agricultural literacy and healthier eating habits· Creates markets and income for small to mid-sized farms
· Can be logistically challenging.· Schools have strict budgets local food may cost more· Requires coordination between schools, farms, distributors· Limited by seasonality of local crops· Food safety and procurement regulations can be hurdles· Needs teachers willing to take on education roles· School gardens require long-term maintenance
[83,94,95]
Urban agriculture
Urban agriculture involves growing, processing, and distributing food and other agricultural products in and around cities. This include backyard, rooftop and community gardens, vertical farming, livestock grazing in urban spaces, aquaculture and hydroponics
· Improves food security and access in cities· Provides income opportunities· Productive use of vacant urban land· Reduces transport needs and food miles· Creates green spaces and urban forestry· Manages stormwater runoff· Fosters community and connections
· Space constraints in dense urban areas· Urban soils may be contaminated· High startup costs for some technologies· Growing conditions can be less ideal· May require special zoning allowances· Could increase urban-wildlife conflicts· Risk of producing unsafe foods· Requires urban gardening knowledge
[96,97]
Food recovery and redistribution
Food recovery and redistribution involves collecting unsold, unused fresh food from sources like restaurants, grocers, farmers markets and gardens, and distributing it to those in need through food banks, shelters and community programs
· Reduces food waste and landfill methane emissions· Makes nutritious food more available to food insecure populations· Supports emergency food providers· Can lower costs for food businesses through tax incentives· Allows for use of imperfect yet edible produce
· Requires coordination between many entities· Cold storage and transportation needs· Food safety regulations create challenges· Labor intensive to safely handle and redistribute foods· Does not address root causes of hunger/food waste· Need to educate consumers on use of recovered items· Cannot completely replace need for purchased fresh foods
[54,55]
Halal certification
Verification that food adheres to Islamic dietary laws include Sourcing of ingredients and products with minimal environmental impact and minimizing food waste at all stages of production and consumption
· Ensures food is prepared, processed and labeled according to Halal standards· Focus on reducing carbon footprint, conserving resources· Ethical treatment of animals and fair trade· Promotes small-scale, sustainable farming· Reduces chemical use and transportation emissions
· Access to Muslim markets· Enhances consumer trust· Promotes ethical and humane treatment of animals· Supports local economies· Reduces the carbon footprint· Healthier, more natural ingredients
[98,99]
Organic farming
Organic farming uses cultural, biological and mechanical practices that promote ecological balance and conserve biodiversity. It excludes mineral fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, genetic engineering and ionizing radiation. Organic crops are grown without agrochemicals or genetically modified organisms, and livestock are raised free of antibiotics or hormones
· Protects the environment from chemicals· Preserves biodiversity· Improves soil fertility over time· Conserves water· Avoids health risks of pesticides· Meets consumer demand for organic products· Commands premium organic market prices
· Typically lower yields than conventional farming· Organic inputs like compost can be expensive· More labor intensive weed and pest control· Transition period from conventional is difficult· Specific organic certifications required· Knowledge-intensive farming methods· Consumer fraud risks if standards not met
[85,86]
Crop rotation and cover crops
Crop rotation involves growing different crops sequentially on the same fields year to year. Cover crops are plants sown between harvests to cover and protect soil rather than for harvest
· Improves soil fertility and structure· Reduces soil erosion and nutrient loss· Suppresses weeds, pests and diseases· Reduces the need for agrochemical inputs· It helps manage soil moisture content· It may increase crop yields· Provides livestock feed options· Promotes on-farm biodiversity
· Can be labor and management intensive· Requires advanced planning and record keeping· Cover crops compete for moisture· Added time, costs and labor for planting cover crops· Potential reduction in main cash crop outputs· Specific equipment or collaborations needed· Transition period for soil balancing
[30,67,68,]
Precision agriculture
Involves using technology such as GPS, remote sensing and sensor data to precisely manage inputs and farming practices at a very localized, site-specific level
· Optimizes yields and profitability· Reduces environmental impacts· Targets inputs to reduce costs· Saves time and labor· Early disease/pest detection· Improves record keeping and decision-making
· High upfront technology costs· Steep learning curve for farmers· Reliance on technical specialists· Data security and privacy risks· Not feasible for small farms· Promotes larger industrial farming model· Raises barriers to entry for new farmers
[100–102]
Aquaponics
Aquaponics is a food production system that combines aquaculture (fish farming) with hydroponics (soilless plant growth). It is a symbiotic recirculating system where fish waste provides nutrients for plants and plants naturally filter water for fish
· It uses 90% less water than soil- based agriculture· No chemical fertilizers are needed· Grows food year-round in any climate· Higher yields compared to hydroponics or aquaculture alone· Dual harvest of fish and plants· Scalable systems work in small and large spaces
· High startup costs for system infrastructure· Ongoing electricity costs for pumps and lights· Careful system monitoring required· Balancing nutrients can be challenging· Requires technical expertise to operate well· Disease transmission risks between fish and plants
[97,103]
Permaculture
Permaculture is an agricultural philosophy and system design approach aimed at developing productive, sustainable human habitats by integrating land, resources, people and the environment. It uses ethics of earth care, people care and fair share to guide holistic solutions
· Works with natural ecosystems and cycles· Regenerative, practices promoting biodiversity· Ethical and resource-efficient approach· Multi-functional landscape design· Drought and climate-resilient· Empowers self-reliant communities
· Knowledge-intensive, steep learning curve· Needs long-term planning and observation· Labor intensive establishment· Lower yields than conventional agriculture· Difficult to implement on large scale· Restricted by land tenures and policies· Lack of adequate certification systems
[72,104,105]
Tab.1 Sustainable food systems in practice
Strategies
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
Reference
Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a deliberate practice that involves the intentional integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural systems that include crop cultivation and animal husbandry. This integration is designed to yield a spectrum of advantages that include environmental, economic and social aspects. Prominent practices include silvopasture, forest farming, riparian buffers, alley cropping, windbreaks, and more innovative techniques
· Sequesters carbon in soils and biomass· Improves soil health and fertility· Reduces nutrient leaching and runoff· Provides habitat for beneficial insects and wildlife· Can increase crop yields when combined properly· Offers farm diversification and extra income sources
· High start-up costs for tree planting and establishment· Increased management complexity· Potential for competition between trees and crops· Risk of hosting pest species· Delayed benefit realization until trees mature· Lack of farmer familiarity with practices· Needs long-term planning and design
[6,7, 25,42,49]
Conservation and restoration of ecosystems
Agricultural conservation and ecosystem restoration involve protecting and renewing ecosystem functions and services through practices including the installation of buffer strips, the establishment of wildlife habitats, watershed management, agroforestry, cover cropping and regenerative grazing techniques
· Enhances biodiversity· Improves soil health and filters water and nutrient flows· Sequesters carbon in soils· Connects fragmented habitats· Supports pollinators and pest predators· Can increase yields over time· Flood control and climate adaptation
· Land taken out of production· Establishment costs for plantings· Ongoing maintenance requirements· Delayed or lower returns on investment· Knowledge-intensive planning and design· Dependent on farmer participation· Benefits are not always quantifiable· Requires long-term commitment
[53,106]
Agroecology
Ecological approach to agriculture that aims to sustainably produce food by optimizing interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment. It focuses on on-farm solutions rather than external inputs
· Environmentally sustainable· Supports biodiversity· Builds climate resilience· Reduces the need for external inputs· Appropriate for small farmers· Maintains yields over the long- term· Deepens food sovereignty
· Knowledge-intensive· Context-specific so requires local innovation· Needs farmer participation and exchange· Can have high labor requirements· Hard to scale up and certify· Yield gaps may persist in the transition period· Needs supportive policies and incentives
[107,108]
Sustainable intensification
Sustainable intensification aims to increase agricultural productivity and yields per unit area while also reducing the negative environmental impacts of food production systems
· Increases food production on existing farmland· Avoids expansion into forests and grasslands· Optimizes inputs to reduce costs and waste· Can incorporate high-tech solutions· Maintains ecosystem services through agriculture· Preserves biodiversity in the landscape· Helps meet rising food demand
· Improving sustainability is very complex· Risk of focusing too narrowly on yields· Could still promote monocultures· Requires well-targeted technologies and practices· High management skills are needed· Success context is specific to each farm· Does not fundamentally transform larger food systems
[56,109,110]
Direct marketing and local food systems
Direct marketing provides consumers access to foods directly from farmers through venues like farmers markets, farm stands, community supported agricultures and online sales. Local food systems focus on production and consumption within a small geographic region
· Allows farmers to retain more value· Provides consumers fresh, seasonal produce· Supports local economic development· Reduces transport miles and emissions· Connects consumers directly to food sources· Circulates money within local economy
· Weather events can drastically impact the supply· Seasonal availability limits options· Distribution infrastructure needs development· Requires consumer participation and tourism· Price competitiveness challenges· Food safety compliance can be difficult· Requires marketing skills from farmers
[111,112]
Farmer training and knowledge exchange
Farmer training involves education programs and knowledge sharing opportunities to teach farmers new skills and techniques. Knowledge exchange facilitates collaborations for farmers to learn from one another
· Accelerates adoption of new practices· Provides hands-on, field-based learning· Allows farmers to network and exchange ideas· Makes research more accessible to farmers· Enhances technology transfer· Builds capacity and empowers farmers
· Context-specific and locally relevant· Requires extensive time commitment· Can be costly to deliver quality programs· Language and educational barriers· Needs clear incentives for participation· Hard to reach all farmers, including women· Knowledge exchange needs facilitation· Outdated practices may persist· Tracking impact and outcomes is difficult
[113]
Collaboration and partnerships
Agricultural collaborations and partnerships involve farmers, researchers, businesses, non-profits, government agencies and other entities working together toward shared goals through joint projects, resource sharing, coordinated initiatives and multidirectional learning
· Shared costs, resources, knowledge· Expands reach and adoption· Fosters innovation through diverse perspectives· Improves research relevance· Tackles complex system challenges· Clarifies roles of different stakeholders· Builds social capital and trust
· Extensive time investment· Managing varied interests is challenging· Unequal power dynamics possible· Requires careful planning and communication· Defining shared goals can be difficult· Accountability and credit issues· Sustaining momentum long-term· Assessing collaborative impacts
[114]
Access to finance and support
Access to finance and support in agriculture involves the ability of farmers to obtain lending, credit, insurance, grants, subsidies, and other financial services and mechanisms to help manage costs, risks and investments in their farm businesses
· Helps farms start-up and expand· Allows investment in improvements· Manages the risk of crop/animal losses· Levels playing field with subsidies· Bridges timing gaps and seasonality· Encourages sustainable transitions· Builds climate resilience· Tax incentives support practices
· Debt risks for farmers if loans mismanaged· Application hurdles limit eligibility· Corruption in subsidy allocation· Public expense of support programs· Record-keeping burdens· Admin costs reduce farmer profit· Gaps persist for small farms· Hard to target and track impact
[115]
Tab.2 Strategies for promoting sustainable agriculture and food systems
Support, policy and regulation
Description
Reference
Regulations and standards
· It is within the purview of governmental bodies to institute regulatory frameworks and benchmarks aimed at promoting agricultural practices that are sustainable· The aforementioned may include directives pertaining to the application of pesticides, attainment of organic certification and implementation of sustainable land management techniques· Regulations of this nature establish a structured system for farmers to implement sustainable methodologies
[118–120]
Environmental regulations
· It is within the purview of governments to institute and enforce regulatory measures aimed at protecting natural resources and mitigating the adverse environmental externalities that may arise from agricultural practices· The aforementioned measures may include policies pertaining to the management of water resources, preservation of soil quality, application of pesticides and safeguarding of biodiversity
[121–123]
Food safety and quality standards
· The establishment and enforcement of food safety regulations and quality standards are critical functions performed by governments· The implementation of these standards serves to safeguard consumers against deleterious contaminants and guarantee the safe, nourishing and superior quality production and dissemination of food
[124,125]
Market support and access
· It is within the purview of governmental bodies to establish policies that strengthen the development of local and regional food systems, advance equitable trade practices and augment the market entry opportunities for smallholder farmers· The implementation of various measures, such as farmer markets, farm-to-school programs and public procurement policies that prioritize locally sourced and sustainably produced food, can be considered as potential initiatives
[111,112]
Subsidy reform
· It is possible for governments to implement reforms in agricultural subsidies as a means of promoting sustainable practices· The reallocation of subsidies from conventional agriculture, which frequently depends on agrochemical inputs, to sustainable agriculture has the potential to foster ecological stewardship and augment sustainability
[78,126–128]
Research and development funding
· It is within the purview of governmental bodies to allocate financial resources toward research and development endeavors that are geared toward promoting sustainable agricultural practices· This initiative facilitates the advancement and distribution of novel technologies, methodologies and information that augment agricultural output, optimize resource utilization and promote ecological sustainability
[114,129]
Sustainable farming incentives
· It is within the purview of governments to provide economic inducements such as financial incentives, subsidies or tax exemptions to farmers who choose to implement sustainable agricultural practices· The provision of incentives has the potential to promote the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices such as crop rotation, agroforestry and the use of organic fertilizers· These practices are aimed at reducing the dependence on agrochemical inputs and mitigating the adverse environmental effects associated with conventional farming methods
[130–132]
Tab.3 Role of government support, policy and regulation
Fig.2 Food System Mapping shows how multiple subsystems interact.
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