Microbial biodegradation of plastics: Challenges, opportunities, and a critical perspective

doi:10.1007/s11783-022-1596-6

Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.

2022, Vol. 16

Issue (12) : 161 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-022-1596-6

REVIEW ARTICLE

Microbial biodegradation of plastics: Challenges, opportunities, and a critical perspective

Shilpa, Nitai Basak, Sumer Singh Meena(

)

Department of Biotechnology, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Punjab 144027, India

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Abstract

● Health hazards of plastic waste on environment are discussed.

● Microbial species involved in biodegradation of plastics are being reviewed.

● Enzymatic biodegradation mechanism of plastics is outlined.

● Analytical techniques to evaluate the plastic biodegradation are presented.

The abundance of synthetic polymers has increased due to their uncontrolled utilization and disposal in the environment. The recalcitrant nature of plastics leads to accumulation and saturation in the environment, which is a matter of great concern. An exponential rise has been reported in plastic pollution during the corona pandemic because of PPE kits, gloves, and face masks made up of single-use plastics. The physicochemical methods have been employed to degrade synthetic polymers, but these methods have limited efficiency and cause the release of hazardous metabolites or by-products in the environment. Microbial species, isolated from landfills and dumpsites, have utilized plastics as the sole source of carbon, energy, and biomass production. The involvement of microbial strains in plastic degradation is evident as a substantial amount of mineralization has been observed. However, the complete removal of plastic could not be achieved, but it is still effective compared to the pre-existing traditional methods. Therefore, microbial species and the enzymes involved in plastic waste degradation could be utilized as eco-friendly alternatives. Thus, microbial biodegradation approaches have a profound scope to cope with the plastic waste problem in a cost-effective and environmental-friendly manner. Further, microbial degradation can be optimized and combined with physicochemical methods to achieve substantial results. This review summarizes the different microbial species, their genes, biochemical pathways, and enzymes involved in plastic biodegradation.

Keywords Plastic-waste Polymers Health-hazards Biodegradation Microorganisms Enzymes

Corresponding Author(s): Sumer Singh Meena

Issue Date: 19 July 2022

Cite this article:

Shilpa,Nitai Basak,Sumer Singh Meena. Microbial biodegradation of plastics: Challenges, opportunities, and a critical perspective[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2022, 16(12): 161.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-022-1596-6
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2022/V16/I12/161

Tab.1 Commercially available plastics and their applications

Fig.1 Different modes of plastic waste degradation: 1) Physical degradation i.e. thermal oxidation and mechanical methods; 2) Chemical degradation i.e., hydrolysis, pyrolysis, and oxidation; 3) Photo-degradation i.e., weathering and UV radiation by the sunlight; 4) Microbial degradation i.e., enzymatic degradation, biochemical transformations, and assimilation.

Polymer targeted	Media	Microbe isolated	Sample source	Analytical technique(s)	% degradation and incubation time	References
LDPE	Minimal salt medium	Enterobacter and Pseudomonas	Plastic dumping landfill, Karnataka, India	Hydrophobicity analysis, SEM, FTIR, and AFM	Observed 12.5%, 15%, 15%, 10%, 10% and 15% weight loss of LDPE post 150 d incubation by Enterobacter and Pseudomonas isolates	Skariyachan et al., 2021
LDPE beads and LDPE films	Minimal salt medium	Stenotrophomonas sp. and Achromobacter sp.	Plastic waste dumpsite near IIT Kharagpur campus and drilling fluid site in Maharashtra, India	Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy	Observed 8% weight reduction of LDPE beads in 100 d	Dey et al., 2020
LDPE, HDPE, and PVC	Bushnell–Haas minimal medium	Bacillus spp.	Water samples from a plastic polluted coastal area	SEM, AFM, and FTIR analysis	Observed 0.2%, 0.9%, and 1% weight loss after 90 d for PVC, LDPE, and HDPE films respectively	Kumari et al., 2019
HDPE and LDPE	Synthetic media (SM)	248 bacterial isolates dominantly from Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp.	Plastic waste dumped sites	FTIR analysis	Observed a high percentage of weight loss among 25 isolates from different districts after 30 d of incubation	Sangeetha Devi et al., 2019
LDPE	Artificial modified media	Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Brevibacillus, Cellulosimicrobium, Lysinibacillus and fungi Aspergillus	Dumpsite samples	FTIR and GC-MS	Observed the mean weight reduction of 36.4% in Aspergillus oryzae strain A5 and 20.2% reduction in case of Bacillus cereus strain A5 culture in the incubation period of 8, 12, and 16 weeks	Ndahebwa Muhonja et al., 2018
LDPE, HDPE and PP	Minimal media	Consortia of thermophilic Aneurinibacillus spp. and Brevibacillus spp.	Highest plastic polluted eight spots across different districts of Karnataka, India	FTIR, EDS, AFM, NMR, and GC-MS	Observed the highest percentage weight reduction of 58.2%, 46.6%, and 56.3% for LDPE, HDPE, and PP, respectively, after 140 d	Skariyachan et al., 2018
LDPE	Minimal media broth	Consortia of bacteria having gram-negative bacilli Proteus sp., Enterobacter sp., Pantoea sp., and Pseudomonas sp.	Plastic processing garbage area soil samples	Weight loss determination LDPE pellets and strips, FTIR, SEM, and GC-FID analysis	81% and 38% of weight reduction in LDPE strips and pellets for 120 d	Skariyachan et al., 2016
LDPE	Minimal Salts medium	Pseudomonas sp., Sphingobacterium sp., Stenotrophomonas sp., Ochrobactrum sp., Citrobacter amalonaticus, Micrococcus luteus, and Acinetobacter pittii	Landfill soil	FTIR, SEM, and gravimetric weight loss analysis	26.8% gravimetric weight loss of polyethylene films over 4 weeks	Montazer et al., 2018
LDPE and corn starch	Czapek-Dox agar Nutrient and potato agar	Bacillus, Clostridium, Micrococcus,Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Mucor	Soil burial at 5 cm or 15–30 cm depth	Electret-thermal analysis (ETA) and Thermally stimulated currents (TSC) spectra	10%–15% of degradation after 1.5 months	Pinchuk et al., 2004
Food packaging grade virgin LDPE film	Malt Extract Agar	Chaetomium globosum, Corynascussepedonium, Trichoderma longibrachiatum, Fusarium sp., Paecilomyces variotii, and Aspergillus niger	Horse manure, fresh grass waste, partially rotted plants material, and straw	SEM, FTIR, and tensiometry analysis	Microbial colonization at 30 °C for 2 weeks and 28 d in corona discharge treatment	Matsunaga and Whitney, 2000
LDPE	Basal mineral solution	Phanerochaete chrysosporium	Soil sample	FTIR analysis	56% reduction in elongation in the inoculated sample while 12% in uninoculated soil for 6 months	Orhan and Büyükgüngör, 2000
LDPE	Mineral salt medium	Xylaria sp.	Fungal garden of termite ecosystem	Zone of clearance analysis	Heat treatment for 20 d, UV treatment for 1 to 2 h, and chemical treatment for 10 d. Agar plates were incubated for 2–4 weeks	Thilagavathi et al., 2018
1) Nano additives containing plastic bags, 2) Oxo-biodegradable plastic bags, 3) LLDPE and HDPE, 4) Plastic bags with additives	Medium containing Peptone, Glucose, Sodium chloride, and Meat extract	Bacillus sp.	Compost agricultural residue	Weight loss, structure, surface morphology, FTIR, and tensile strength analysis	Observed 60.7%, 11%, and 4.4% of weight loss in three different types of plastics within 30 d	Dang et al., 2018
PE microplastics	Basal medium	Paenibacillus sp. and Bacillus sp.	Municipal landfill sediment	GC-MS, dry weight, TGA, and SEM analysis	Observed 14.7% dry weight reduction in PE and 22.4% mean diameter reduction after 60 d	Park and Kim, 2019
PE mulch film	Czapek Dox medium and liquid carbon-free basal medium	Arthrobacter sp. and Streptomyces sp.	Soil plastic from Gansu province, China	CO₂ evolution, FTIR	Observed decreased hydrophobicity, and increased carbonyl index in 90 d incubation time	Han et al., 2020
PE	Marine broth, Nutrient Broth, Czapek-Dox Broth, and R2A Broth	Comamonas, Delftia, and Stenotrophomonas	Soil sample from plastic debris site	ATR/FTIR, AFM, SEM, and Raman spectroscopy	Crystalline content loss was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, while a 46.7% decrease in viscose area revealed by phase imaging	Peixoto et al., 2017
PE	Nutrient medium, Mineral Salt Medium	Bacillus subtilis	–	Gravimetric, weight loss, and FTIR analysis	Observed 9.2% weight loss in 30 d	Vimala and Mathew, 2016
PE	Nutrient broth containing Cow dung (500 g) + paper cup waste (500 g) + microbial consortium	Microbial consortia such as different Bacillus spp. and Acinetobacter baumannii	Waste like plastic paper cups	FTIR, X-ray diffraction, and SEM analysis	Observed 52.9%–33.1% reduction in total organic matter (TOM) after 90 d of incubation	Arumugam et al., 2018
PE	Minimal media containing potassium and ammonium salts	Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus sp.,and Bacillus sp.	Soil samples	Determination of weight Loss	42.5%, 20%, and 5% of weight loss by Staphylococcus sp. (P1A), Pseudomonas sp. (P1B), and by a consortium (PID) in 40 d.	Singh et al., 2016
PE	Mineral Salt medium	Bacillus cereus	Local dumpsite	SEM and FTIR spectroscopy analysis	Observed 7.2% weight loss of autoclaved polyethylene in 3 months	Sowmya, 2014
PE bag and plastic cup	Mineral salt agar plates	Streptomyces sp., Bacillus sp.	Garbage soil	Determination of weight Loss	28.4% of plastics and 37% of polythene degraded	Usha et al., 2011
PE	Nutrient broth medium	Pseudomonas sp.	1)Domestic waste disposal site 2) Soil from textile effluents drainage site; and 3) Soil dumped with sewage sludge	Dry weight estimation	46.2% and 29.1% weight reduction in natural and synthetic polyethylene, respectively, in 8 weeks	Nanda et al., 2010
PE	Minimal media and soil mulching	Rhodococcus ruber	Soil samples from 15 plastic dumping sites	SEM and FTIR analysis	Observed 8% degradation (gravimetrically) in polyolefin in 30 d	Orr et al., 2004
PE	Nitrogen-free mineral salts, malt extract, and yeast extract	Streptomyces strain, Mucorrouxii, and Aspergillus flavus	–	Tensile strength, percent elongation, and FTIR Spectrometry	Observed 28.5% and 46.5% reduction elongation by Streptomyces and fungal culture	El-Shafei et al., 1998
PE	Bold’s Basal Medium and Diatom medium	Diatom medium, Anabaena spiroides, and Navicula pupula	Photosynthetic microalgae samples from freshwater bodies like pools, ponds, and ditches	Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis	An average of 3.7%, 8.1%, and 4.4% degradation was reported byScenedesmus dimorphus, Anabaena spiroides, and Diatom, respectively	Kumar et al., 2017
PET	Mineral medium	Streptomyces sp.	–	GC-MS analysis	49.2%, 57.4%, 62.4%, and 68.8% reduction in weight of 500, 420, 300 and 212 µm size PET particles, respectively, after 18 d	Farzi et al., 2019
PET	Minimal salt medium	Acinetobacter baumannii	Soil and plastic waste sample	Percentage weight loss, FTIR, and SEM analysis	Observed 27.3% weight reduction in 90 d of incubation time	Hussein et al., 2018
PET	Yeast extract, sodium carbonate, and Vitamins medium	Ideonella sakaiensis	PET contaminated dumpsites	SEM analysis	75% degradation of PET films	Yoshida et al., 2016
PET	Yeast extract sodium carbonate vitamins (YSV)	Ideonella sakaiensis	PET-bottle recycling site in	–	–	Tanasupawat et al., 2016
Poly (butylene adipate- co -terephthalate) (PBAT)	Murashige and Skoog medium	Stenotrophomonas sp.	Soil sample from apple farms in Yanxia Town, Shaanxi Province, China	LC-MS, NMR, XRD, ATR-FTIR, and SEM	Observed stretching vibrations at 2964 cm⁻¹ and 2871 cm⁻¹, respectively, and the C = O stretching vibration was found at 1715 cm⁻¹	Jia et al., 2021
Polybutylene succinate-co-adipate (PBSA) , Poly-(butylene succinate) (PBS) , Polylactic acid (PLA), and PCL	Basal medium	Actinomadura, Streptomyces, and Laceyella	Compost soil	Morphological, physiological, and chemotaxonomic analysis	Observed 1% (w/v) PBS (19.4 U/mL), 0.5% (w/v) PLA (22.3 U/mL), 1% (w/v) PCL (18 U/mL), and0.5% (w/v) PBSA (6.3 U/mL) polyester degrading activity	Sriyapai et al., 2018
Poly (L-Lactide)	Basal liquid medium	Actinomycetes strain	Soil samples	Clear zone method	PLA-degrading activity at 22 U/mL, while 15 and 10 U/mL of activity by other strains	Sukhumaporn et al., 2011
Poly (L-Lactide)	PLA agar plates and Basal medium	Actinomadura sp. andBacilli sp.	Soil surface layer samples	Clear zone method	22 U/mL highest PLA-degrading activity by Actinomycetes strain	Sukkhum et al., 2009
PCL and PVC films	Agar into nutrient-salt solution	Chaetomium globosum, Penicillium funiculosum, Aspergillus brasiliensis, Paecilomyces variotii , and Trichoderma virens	–	Colour and morphological changes, mass loss, SEM and optical microscopy (OM)	Observed the mass loss of up to 75% after 28 d of incubation	Vivi et al., 2019
PVC	Anaerobic specific medium containing sodium chloride	Anaerobic consortia, i.e., acidogenic/methanogenic, nitrate-reducing, and sulfate-reducing microorganisms.	Marine samples from Elefsis Bay, Greece	Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Gel permeation chromatography (GPC)	Observed gravimetric weight losses up to 11.7%	Giacomucci et al., 2020
PUR	(a)SDA agar plate (b)LiquidMinimal salt medium (c) Soil burial	Aspergillus tubingensis	Waste disposal site, Islamabad, Pakistan	SEM, Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopic (ATR-FTIR) analysis	Observed higher PU degradation in plate culture than in liquid culture and soil burial technique	Khan et al., 2017
PUR	Lysogeny broth-Miller (LB) or minimal medium	Pseudomonas protegens	–	NMR spectroscopy	–	Hung et al., 2016

Tab.2 Plastic degrading microbial strains with their optimization conditions

Fig.2 The diversity analysis of plastic degrading microbial strain was studied through phylogenetic tree construction. The tree was generated using the neighbour-joining method. The nodes are supported with their appropriate bootstrap values.

Fig.3 Enzymes associated with PET degradation are cutinase, glycolaldehyde reductase, glycolaldehyde dehydrogenase, glycolate oxidase, and malate synthase. Breakdown of PET by cutinase enzyme results in two monomeric units: ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, further ethylene glycol monomer is reduced to glycolaldehyde, which gets dehydrogenased by glycolaldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme to glycolate, further glycolate is oxidized to glyoxalate, finally malate synthase act on glyoxalate and convert it to malate, which is further utilized by microbes for their growth.

Tab.3 Enzymes involved in plastic degradation

Variation in the properties of plastics	Techniques used	Function	References
Morphological changes and surface changes	SEM, AFM	SEM reveals the presence of cracks, cavities, and erosion.AFM estimates the roughness of material at low magnifications	Harrison et al., 2018; de Santana et al., 2019
Molecular weight	HT-GPC	Detection of changes in molecular weight of plastics	Yabannavar and Bartha, 1994; Suresh et al., 2011; Jeon and Kim, 2016
Contact angle, density, and viscosity	Software-controlled hanging drop method.	Detect changes that occur in the surface density of the functional group and surface energy	Suresh et al., 2011
Crystallinity changes	X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)	Detect crystallinity changes in the plastic material	Capitain et al., 2020
Tensile Strength & Modulus of polymer	Dynamic Mechanical analysis	Detect changes in the tensile strength and percentage elongation of polymer	Huang et al., 2005
Chemical properties	FTIR	Detection of certain polar functional groups, like ester carbonyls and ketones, to quantify oxidative degradation pathway	Celina et al., 1997; Ioakeimidis et al., 2016
CO₂ evolution test	Traditional trapping, titration methods, and sturm test	Used as an indication to prove that biological degradation is happening	Alshehrei, 2017; Castro-Aguirre et al., 2017
Electrical properties	pH changes	Used to detect the degradation based on biomass growth on plastics	Krueger et al., 2015
Colour alteration	Visualization test and colorimetric test	Detect the biochemical alteration and changes in the colour of plastics	Ali et al., 2014; Pastorelli et al., 2014
Metabolites formation	Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS )	Detection of bio-fragments and the presence of saturated linear alkanes in the culture media	Kyaw et al., 2012
Weight of polymer	Gravimetric weight loss	Detection of percentage weight loss of polymer	Skariyachan et al., 2016

Tab.4 Existing analytical techniques for the assessment of plastic biodegradation

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