Alternate disinfection approaches or raise disinfectant dosages for sewage treatment plants to address the COVID-19 pandemic? From disinfection efficiency, DBP formation, and toxicity perspectives

doi:10.1007/s11783-024-1875-5

2024, Vol. 18

Issue (9) : 115 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-024-1875-5

Alternate disinfection approaches or raise disinfectant dosages for sewage treatment plants to address the COVID-19 pandemic? From disinfection efficiency, DBP formation, and toxicity perspectives

Xiaobin Liao¹(

), Xinyue Liu¹, Yueyun He², Xueping Tang², Ruanjunjie Xia¹, Yongjun Huang¹, Wenhua Li³, Jing Zou¹, Zhenming Zhou¹, Mazhan Zhuang²

¹. Institute of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
². Xiamen Institute of Environmental Science, Xiamen 361021, China
³. College of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China

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Abstract

● Combined proposals achieved higher disinfection efficiencies than singular ones.

● Cl₂ produced the most DBPs, combined proposals can reduce their formation.

● Cl₂ could damage bacterial cell membrane and caused the leakage of IOM.

● The toxicity by zebrafish embryo followed: Cl₂≈O₃/Cl₂ > O₃ > O₃/UV/Cl₂ > UV > UV/Cl₂.

● UV/Cl₂ was suggested to deal with COVID-19 epidemic for sewage treatment plants.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, most sewage treatment plants increased disinfectant dosages to inactivate pathogenic viruses and microorganisms more effectively. However, this approach also led to the production of more disinfection by-products (DBPs). To ensure both disinfection efficiency and a reduction in DBP formation, new disinfection protocols are required. In this study, the disinfection efficiency, DBP amounts, and toxicity changes resulting from ozone (O₃), ultraviolet (UV), chlorine (Cl₂), and their combined processes were examined. The results demonstrated that the O₃/UV/Cl₂ combination achieved the highest disinfection efficiency. Chlorination produced the most DBPs, whereas UV treatment reduced the formation of trihalomethane (THM), halogenated ketones (HKs), haloacetic acids (HAA), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) by 45.9%, 52.6%, 82.0%, 67.95%, and 47%, respectively. O₃ also significantly reduced their production by 99.1%, 91.1%, 99.5%, 100%, and 35%. Intracellular organic matter (IOM) was identified as the primary DBP precursors, producing 2.94 times more DBPs than extracellular organic matter (EOM). The increased DBP formation during chlorination was attributed to IOM leakage and cell membrane damage, which was verified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The toxicities of DBPs were evaluated for six disinfection methods, revealing inconsistent results. The overall toxicities were assessed using zebrafish embryo experiments. Both evaluations indicated that chlorination alone was the least favorable method. In addition, the toxicities followed a sequence: Cl₂ ≈ O₃/Cl₂ > O₃ > O₃/UV/Cl₂ > UV > UV/Cl₂. These findings can serve as a reference for sewage treatment plants in selecting appropriate disinfection methods to manage the COVID-19 epidemic from comprehensive perspective.

Keywords Sewage bacteria Disinfection by-products Toxicity Ozonation UV Chlorination

Corresponding Author(s): Xiaobin Liao

Issue Date: 05 July 2024

Cite this article:

Xiaobin Liao,Xinyue Liu,Yueyun He, et al. Alternate disinfection approaches or raise disinfectant dosages for sewage treatment plants to address the COVID-19 pandemic? From disinfection efficiency, DBP formation, and toxicity perspectives[J]. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng., 2024, 18(9): 115.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/10.1007/s11783-024-1875-5
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fese/EN/Y2024/V18/I9/115

Fig.1 Inactivation of bacteria by different disinfection methods. O₃ = 4 mg/L, UV = 45 mJ/cm², Cl₂ = 4 mg/L, pH = 7.2, bacterial concentration = 1.5 × 10⁷ CFU/mL.

Fig.2 DBPs production of sewage bacteria under different disinfection methods. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2, bacterial concentration = 1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL. (a) THMs; (b) HAAs; (c) HKs; (d) HANs; (e) NDMA.

Fig.3 DBPs concentration produced by intact bacteria, EOM and IOM. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2. (a) THMs; (b) HAAs; (c) HKs; (d) HANs; (e) NDMA.

Fig.4 Effect of disinfection methods on EEM analysis of (a) EOM and (b) IOM of bacteria before/after disinfection. DOC = 5 mg/L at pH 7.0, 25 °C with the reaction time of 3 d. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2, bacterial concentration = 1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL.

Fig.5 SEM photos before and after bacterial disinfection. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2. (a) Before disinfection; (b) O₃; (c) UV; (d) Cl₂; (e) O₃/Cl₂; (f) UV/Cl₂; (g) O₃/UV/Cl₂.

Fig.6 Cytotoxicity of DBPs produced by distinct methods. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2, bacterial concentration = 1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL.

Fig.7 Mortality (a), hatching rate (b) and deformity rate (c) of zebrafish within 72 h of embryonic development. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2.

Fig.8 Growth morphology of zebrafish embryos exposed to water samples for 72 h. [O₃] = 8 mg/L, [UV] = 48 mJ/cm², [Cl₂] = 25 mg/L, pH = 7.2, bacterial concentration = 1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL. (a) Blank; (b) O₃; (c) UV; (d) Cl₂; (e) O₃/Cl₂; (f) UV/Cl₂; (g) O₃/UV/Cl₂.

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