Porosity parameters in biomaterial science: Definition, impact, and challenges in tissue engineering

doi:10.1007/s11706-021-0558-4

Front. Mater. Sci.

2021, Vol. 15

Issue (3) : 352-373 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11706-021-0558-4

REVIEW ARTICLE

Porosity parameters in biomaterial science: Definition, impact, and challenges in tissue engineering

Mehdi EBRAHIMI(

)

Biomedical and Tissue Engineering, Prince Philip Dental Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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Abstract

Porosity parameters are one of the structural properties of the extracellular microenvironment that have been shown to have a great impact on the cellular phenotype and various biological activities such as diffusion of fluid, initial protein adsorption, permeability, cell penetration and migration, ECM deposition, angiogenesis, and rate and pattern of new tissue formation. The heterogeneity of the study protocols and research methodologies do not allow reliable meta-analysis for definite findings. As such, despite the huge available literature, no generally accepted consensus is defined for the porosity requirements of specific tissue engineering applications. However, based on the biomimetic approach, the biological substitutes should replicate the 3D local microenvironment of the recipient site with matching porosity parameters to best support local cells during tissue regeneration. Ideally, the porosity of biomaterials should mimic the porosity of the substituting natural tissue and match the clinical requirements. Careful analysis of the impact of architectures (i.e., porosity) on biophysical, biochemical, and biological behaviors will support designing smart biomaterials with customized architectural and functional properties that are patient and defect site-specific.

Keywords porosity pore size pore geometry topography tissue engineering

Corresponding Author(s): Mehdi EBRAHIMI

Online First Date: 13 July 2021 Issue Date: 24 September 2021

Cite this article:

Mehdi EBRAHIMI. Porosity parameters in biomaterial science: Definition, impact, and challenges in tissue engineering[J]. Front. Mater. Sci., 2021, 15(3): 352-373.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/foms/EN/10.1007/s11706-021-0558-4
https://academic.hep.com.cn/foms/EN/Y2021/V15/I3/352

Fig.1 Stem cell microenvironment and biophysical and biochemical signals that contribute to the regulation of stem cell behaviors. Orange mesh: ECM; Green circle: oxygen molecules; Red triangle: signaling factors from a blood vessel (humoral factors, i.e., hormones); Blue triangle: signaling factors excreted by cells (autocrine and paracrine factors, i.e., growth and differentiation factors); Black lines: cell–cell contact. Cell–ECM interaction also impacts cell behavior. The topography of the ECM substrate can induce differentiation of MSC through the mechanotransduction pathway. This is modulated by integrin activated focal adhesion. This results in alteration of cell morphology due to the contractility of actomyosin fibers that produce cytoskeleton changes. Reproduced and re-formatted with permission from Ref. [3].

Tab.1 Porosity parameters and the related definitions

Fig.2 Schematic illustration of the pore internal structure demonstrating related porosity parameters in different sections. A — closed pore; B — open pore; C — pore interconnection.

Technique	Using	Advantages	Limitations
Porogen leaching	Particulates, fibers, meshes, salt (NaCl), sugar, paraffin, gelatin, ice crystals	The amount and size of the porogen can modify the pore size and porosity; a minimal amount of polymer is required.	Poor reproducibility; residual porogens; poor pore interconnectivity.
Gas forming	Gas generation (i.e., CO₂), surface active agents (i.e., tween)	No need for leaching step; reduce overall fabrication time.	Low initial strength; poor reproducibility; risk of embolism; difficult control of pore connectivity and pore sizes.
Emulsion	Oil-water mixtures	Allow modification of pore size and percentage.	May require a cleaning step; risk of embolism.
Freeze-drying	Water freezing+ sublimation	Porosity and pore size can be modified by controlling the porosity parameters, polymer/water ratio, and freezing temperature; no need for a further rinsing step.	Energy and time-consuming; the parameters need to be controlled to increase scaffold homogeneity.
Templates	Positive replica (polymeric foams), negative replica (indirect rapid prototyping)	Porosity is determined by the porosity of the template.	Very low strength; residuals from the firing step; crystal changes from the firing step; limited pore connectivity; problems with residual solvents.
3D printing	Direct rapid prototyping	Allows fabrication of a more complex 3D structure with a controlled internal structure.	Micro-architecture limited by the particle’s size; applicable to a limited number of polymers due to high temperatures; ceramic scaffold requires sintering to improve on the brittle toughness.
Selective laser sintering	Layer-by-layer fusion of a powder bed by laser beam	Allows fabrication of complex scaffolds geometries; fast, cost-effective, and does not require the use of any organic solvents.	High energy consumed; chance of degradation and decomposition of materials due to heat generation.
Electrospinning	A potential difference between a polymeric solution and a collector	Simple and cost-effective; generate high surface area and high porosity; possibility to control the diameter of each electrospun fiber.	Involvement of toxic organic solvents during fabrication.
Encapsulation	Cell entrapment during scaffold gellation	Ability to provide immunoshielding for cells; possibility of fabricating injectable forms.	The gelation process and encapsulating materials should be biocompatible; difficulty in control of diffusion coefficient to/from cells; lack of internal porous structure.

Tab.2 Manufacturing technique for the generation of pore within substrate biomaterials [8,25?26]

Tab.3 pore size requirements according to the cell type [40,44,62,69,82–91]

Fig.3 (a) The relationship between pore geometry and tissue growth rate. (b) A decrease in proliferation rate as a result of increased microporosity is correlated with a higher differentiation rate.

Fig.4 Classification of the pore system and distribution pattern.

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