Emerging single-photon detection technique for high-performance photodetector

doi:10.1007/s11467-024-1428-1

Front. Phys.

2024, Vol. 19

Issue (6) : 62502 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11467-024-1428-1

Emerging single-photon detection technique for high-performance photodetector

Jinxiu Liu¹, Zhenghan Peng^1,², Chao Tan¹, Lei Yang¹, Ruodan Xu³, Zegao Wang¹(

)

¹. College of Materials Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
². Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, California 94305, USA
³. Department of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Institute of Basic Theory for Chinese Medicine, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China

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Abstract

Single-photon detections (SPDs) represent a highly sensitive light detection technique capable of detecting individual photons at extremely low light intensity levels. This technology mainly relies on the mainstream SPDs, such as photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), avalanche photodiodes (SAPD), superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs), superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES), and hybrid lead halide perovskite. However, the complexity and high manufacturing cost, coupled with the requirement of special conditions like a low-temperature environment, pose significant challenges to the wide adoption of SPDs. To address the challenges faced by SPDs, significant efforts have been devoted to enhancing their performance. In this review, we first summarize the principles and technical challenges of several SPDs. Conductors, superconductors, semiconductors, 3D bulk materials, 2D film materials, 1D nanowires, and 0D quantum dots have all been discussed for single-photon detectors. Methods such as special optical structure, waveguide integration, and strain engineering have been employed to elevate the performance of single-photon detectors. These techniques enhance light absorption and modulate the band structure of the material, thereby improving the single-photon sensitivity. By providing an overview of the current situation and future challenges of SPDs, this review aims to propose potential solutions for photon detection technology.

Keywords single-photon detection superconductor semiconductor low dimensional materials optical structure waveguide integration strain engineering

Corresponding Author(s): Zegao Wang

Issue Date: 16 July 2024

Cite this article:

Jinxiu Liu,Zhenghan Peng,Chao Tan, et al. Emerging single-photon detection technique for high-performance photodetector[J]. Front. Phys. , 2024, 19(6): 62502.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/10.1007/s11467-024-1428-1
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/Y2024/V19/I6/62502

Fig.1 Scope of this review.

Fig.2 (a) Schematic diagram of the multiplication effect in APD. Reproduced from Ref. [19]. Avalanche diode quenching circuit: (b) passive quenching, (c) active quenching, and (d) mixed quenching.

Fig.3 Multiple multiplication layer avalanche diode. (a) Illustration of InGaAs/InAlAs-SPAD with quadruple mesa structure (i) and triple mesa structure (ii). (b) Transverse electric field profile of the lower side of the second multiplication layer. (c) Dark current and photocurrent of mesa-type InGaAs/InAlAs SPAD illuminated with an optical power of 1 μW. (d) Gaussian-like temporal responses were measured at T = 200 K for quadruple and triple mesa devices. Reproduced from Ref. [31].

Fig.4 0D quantum dot based avalanche diode. (a) Schematic diagram of AlGaAs/GaAs quantum dot avalanche diode single-photon detector. (b) Detection efficiency of AQDIP-SPD at different temperatures. (c) DCR of the detector as a function of its detection efficiency for different temperatures. 1D nanowires based detector. (d) Schematic diagram of single photon detection of CdS nanowires deposited on Si/SiO₂ structures. (e) The process of electron−hole pair induction by a single photon. (f) The photogating effect was induced by the trapped hole in the photogating layer. (g) Time-resolved of current measurements at room temperature. 2D ballistic avalanche diode. (h) Illustration of the conventional avalanche diode and (i) ballistic avalanche diode in the vertical InSe/BP heterostructure devices. (j) Low temperature (10 K) photon response and multiplication of InSe/BP APDs (grey line, dark; red line, 4 μm laser illuminated with 30 μW and blue line, the corresponding multiplication factor). (k) I_ds–V_ds curves at different temperatures (from 40 to 180 K). (l) Threshold voltages (V_th) of the avalanche breakdown and multiplication as functions of temperature. (a?c) Reproduced from Ref. [39]; (d?g) Reproduced from Ref. [41]; (h?l) Reproduced from Ref. [49].

Fig.5 Single photon detection principle of superconducting nanowire. Reproduced from Ref. [56].

Fig.6 (a) TES Single photon detection schematic diagram. (b) The TES resistance changes near the superconducting transition temperature and. (c) TES resistance changes with photon absorption. (d) Microscope images of various sizes of Au-TES layouts on the chip. (e) Schematic layout of the TES array. The top number (black) indicates the TES number used. The bottom number, in red, gives the AC bias frequency in MHz for each TES. (f) Measured energy resolution for all geometries. (a?c) Reproduced from Ref. [60]; (d?f) Reproduced from Ref. [64].

Tab.1 Performance information of different single-photon detectors.

Fig.7 (a) Schematic cross-section of the NbN SMSPD with 13 layers of SiO₂/Ta₂O₅ Bragg mirror. (b) The relationship between different filling values f on wavelength absorption. (c) The relationship between the bias current of the SMSPD on the SDE and DCR of SMSPD under 1550 nm illumination at 0.84 and 2.1 K. (d) The maximum and minimum SDE under different polarized lights (the dotted line is the function fitting, and the inset is the microscope image with an effective area of 50 μm). (e) Multispectral SNSPD schemata based on thickness-modulated SiO₂/Ta₂O₅ optical films. (f) For multilayer thickness-modulated optical films, simulated absorption and measurement system detection efficiency (SDEs) in the vicinity of multi-wavelength range. (g) The system detection efficiency (SDE) at 505, 610, 1030 and 1550 nm, and the dark count rate (DCR) as a function of the bias current. (h) SEM image of a cross-section of an optical TES cavity. Inset is the contact between TES and Nb electrodes. (i) Cross-sectional diagram of the fiber coupling. (j) The relationship of reflectivity and wavelength for TES single-photon detectors (The solid line shows the simulation results and the circle is the measured reflectance). (k) The energy distribution of the number of probe pulses laser of Ti-TES. (a?d) Reproduced from Ref. [104]; (e?g) Reproduced from Ref. [105]; (h?k) Reproduced from Ref. [76].

Fig.8 Waveguide integrated SPAD (a), DCR (b) and SPDE (c) of the detection system versus the excess bias at 78 K. (d) The timing jitter as a function of excess bias at V_S1 = 1 V where single-photon detection based on waveguide superconducting nanowires. (e) GaAs/Al_0.75Ga_0.25As ridge waveguides based on NbN. (f) The calculated absorptivity in TE and TM modes, and the inset shows the electric field equivalent profile. (g) Device quantum efficiency (QE) at 1310 nm. (h) Photon count rate measured by pulsed laser at TE polarization at 1310 nm, I_b = 8.8 μA where waveguide integrated TES is used to single-photon detection. (i) Schematic of TES fabricated on optical waveguides at 1550 nm at 12 mK. The size of TES is 25 nm × 25 nm × 40 nm. (j) The photon pulse height distribution for the optimal TM polarization is plotted, and (k) the pulse height distribution without waveguide transient coupling. (l) The electrical TES output traces for different numbers of photons in the weak laser pulse. (a?d) Reproduced from Ref. [124]; (e?h) Reproduced from Ref. [122]; (i?k) Reproduced from Ref. [123].

Fig.9 PdSe₂ photodetector integrated with silicon waveguide. (a) 3D illustration of the waveguide integrated PdSe₂ photodetector. (b) Calculated electric field profiles of the TE mode in the hybrid silicon/PdSe₂ waveguide. (c) Responsivity and EQE at different bias voltage at 1550 nm for different thickness/length PdSe₂ (S1 for 139 nm/22.6 μm, S2 for 142 nm/10.4 μm, S3 for 226 nm/14.7 μm). (d) Regulation of the gate voltage on the photon response (photocurrent and dark current), the optical power is 42 μW. Reproduced from Ref. [125].

Fig.10 Strain-induced modulation of the electronic bandgap in MoTe₂. (a) Schematic diagram of MRR integrated MoTe₂ photodetector. (b) Bulk band structure DFT calculations of MoTe₂ before strain (black) and after 4% strain (red). (c) Photocurrent at different optical power. (d) The responsivity and EQE of the Au/MoTe₂/Au detector with different thickness/length (Device 1 for 40 nm/15 μm; Device 2 for 60 nm/30.7 μm). Reproduced from Ref. [152].

Fig.11 (a) Underwater imaging system for single-photon radar. Reproduced from Ref. [154]. (b) Non-view imaging. Reproduced from Ref. [5].

Fig.12 (a) Schematic of the X-ray imaging system. (b) Normalized response varying with the frequency. (c) Sensitivity of X-ray detectors under different electric fields. (d) MAPbI₃ SC XPV device and (e) DQE dependencies on the dose in γ-ray single-photon counting. The solid black line and points represent the model and experimental data. (f) Energy-resolved spectrum of 60 keV photons from a radioactive ²⁴¹Am source. The inset picture is Energy-resolved X-ray imaging of the object under 50 kV_p X-ray irradiation. (a?c) Reproduced from Ref. [159]; (d?f) Reproduced from Ref. [98].

Fig.13 (a) Using single-photon laser radar (i), a high-rise building (ii) located 45 km away in Shanghai is imaged at a long distance. (iii) is the internal structure of single-photon lidar. (b) A single photon detector (SPD) was used to perform quantum key distribution on 830 km optical fiber. (a) Reproduced from Ref. [161]; (b) Reproduced from Ref. [164].

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