Recent developments in CVD growth and applications of 2D transition metal dichalcogenides

doi:10.1007/s11467-023-1286-2

Front. Phys.

2023, Vol. 18

Issue (5) : 53603 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11467-023-1286-2

REVIEW ARTICLE

Recent developments in CVD growth and applications of 2D transition metal dichalcogenides

Hui Zeng¹, Yao Wen¹, Lei Yin¹, Ruiqing Cheng¹, Hao Wang¹, Chuansheng Liu¹, Jun He^1,^2,^3,⁴(

)

¹. Key Laboratory of Artificial Micro- and Nano-structures of Ministry of Education, and School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
². Wuhan Institute of Quantum Technology, Wuhan 430206, China
³. Hubei Luojia Laboratory, Wuhan 430079, China
⁴. Shanxi Normal University, Taiyuan 030031, China

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Abstract

Two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) with fascinating electronic energy band structures, rich valley physical properties and strong spin–orbit coupling have attracted tremendous interest, and show great potential in electronic, optoelectronic, spintronic and valleytronic fields. Stacking 2D TMDs have provided unprecedented opportunities for constructing artificial functional structures. Due to the low cost, high yield and industrial compatibility, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is regarded as one of the most promising growth strategies to obtain high-quality and large-area 2D TMDs and heterostructures. Here, state-of-the-art strategies for preparing TMDs details of growth control and related heterostructures construction via CVD method are reviewed and discussed, including wafer-scale synthesis, phase transition, doping, alloy and stacking engineering. Meanwhile, recent progress on the application of multi-functional devices is highlighted based on 2D TMDs. Finally, challenges and prospects are proposed for the practical device applications of 2D TMDs.

Keywords two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) chemical vapor deposition (CVD) heterostructures device applications

Corresponding Author(s): Jun He

Issue Date: 12 May 2023

Cite this article:

Hui Zeng,Yao Wen,Lei Yin, et al. Recent developments in CVD growth and applications of 2D transition metal dichalcogenides[J]. Front. Phys. , 2023, 18(5): 53603.

URL:

https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/10.1007/s11467-023-1286-2
https://academic.hep.com.cn/fop/EN/Y2023/V18/I5/53603

Fig.1 CVD growth of wafer-scale single-crystalline 2D TMDs. (a) Schematics of the experimental design for WS₂ growth; the WO₃ precursor powder is directly placed on a BaF₂ substrate. (b, c) Optical images of the WS₂ domains on SiO₂/Si substrates with (b) and without (c) a fluorine supply for the same growth time. (d) Schematic of the growth process of a WS₂ monolayer on vicinal a-plane sapphire. (e) Schematic diagrams for the in-plane 2D-epitaxy synthesis of wafer-scale single-crystalline 2H-MoTe₂ thin film. (f) Optical image of a 2H-MoTe₂ nanoflake assembled in the center of the 1T′-MoTe₂ wafer as a seed to induce the phase transition and recrystallization. (g) Optical image of the wafer after intermediate growth at 650 °C for 2 hours. Inset shows the seed crystal with a needle probe-punched hole. (a−c) Reproduced with permission [11]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature. (d) Reproduced with permission [9]. Copyright © 2021, Springer Nature. (e−g) Reproduced with permission [44]. Copyright © 2021, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Fig.2 2D devices based on wafer-scale TMDs. (a) The on/off ratio and mobility of FETs based on 4-inch monolayer MoS₂ compared with various large-area flexible transistors reported in the literature. (b) The on/off ratio and charge-carrier mobility of a device subjected to 10³ cycled tests of bending and releasing. Inset: Photograph of flexible devices at 1% strain. (c) Photograph of the batch-fabricated MoS₂-based FETs on a 6-inch wafer. Inset: Schematic of the MoS₂-based FET. (d) Histograms showing the distribution of on/off ratio and

μ F E

for the 900 FETs. (e) Schematic illustration of PdS₂/Si detector. (f) 2200 nm (150 mW·cm⁻²), and 3044 nm (100 mW·cm⁻²) light illumination at 0 V. (g) Large scale optical image of centimeter-size monolayer 2H-TaSe₂ film on SiO₂/Si substrates. (h) Photograph of wafer-scale 1T-WS₂ with the 25 points used for the Raman mapping image, indicated by the red circles. (i) Electrochemical HER performance before and after 1000 cycles at 100 mV·s⁻¹ for 1T-WS₂ with a potential shift η from −0.39 to −0.32 V at 10 mA·cm⁻². The stars and circles indicate previously reported results. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [49]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. (c, d) Reproduced from Ref. [50]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH. (e, f) Reproduced from Ref. [52]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. (g) Reproduced from Ref. [56]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. (h, i) Reproduced from Ref. [12]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH.

Fig.3 Phase transition in 2D TMDs. (a) Three structural polymorphs (2H, 1T and 1T′ phases) of MX₂ monolayers. M represents (Mo, W) and X represents (S, Se, Te). (b) Schematic representation of the strain-based MoTe₂ ferroelectric phase change field-effect transistor. (c) CAFM images after a pulse sequence representing the initial condition (left), then a pulse in the same direction as polarization (middle) and finally a pulse in the opposite direction as polarization (right). (d) Schematic representation of the plasma-treated process for 1T-MoS₂. (e) High-resolution ADF image of the WS₂−MoS₂ lateral heterojunction in 2H phase. (f) Schematic diagram of an electrostatic-doping-driven structural phase transition in a MoTe₂ monolayer FET. (a) Reproduced from Ref. [67]. Copyright © 2021, Springer Nature. (b, c) Reproduced from Ref. [69]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature. (d) Reproduced from Ref. [73]. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society. (e) Reproduced from Ref. [13]. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [71]. Copyright © 2017, Springer Nature.

Fig.4 Substantial doping engineering of 2D TMDs. (a) Schematic presentation for the monolayer Re-doped MoS₂ synthesis. (b) Intensity line profile of the Z-contrast image (black squares) recorded along the spectrum line shown in STEM image from monolayer Nb-doped WS₂. The simulated Z-contrast intensity profile based on W−Nb−W (red line) fit well with the experimental data, while the simulated Cl intensity (dashed blue line) does not match. (c) Cross-sectional view of bottom-gated monolayer and few-layer WS₂ FETs with Ti/Au contacts. (d) Drain current versus gate voltage transfer characteristics at a fixed drain voltage of 1 V for the pristine few-layer WS₂ FETs and N-WS₂ FETs with gate voltage sweep from OFF state to ON state. The inset is the optical image of an FL WS₂ FET with a channel width of 15.2 μm and length of 11.5 μm; scale bar is 10 μm. (e) Schematic diagram of two-step synthesis of the Janus MoSSe monolayer. (f) Proposed reaction mechanism for the sulfurization of monolayer MoSe₂ on a SiO₂/Si substrate at different temperatures. (g) Schematic view of the Rashba spin splitting around the Γ point in monolayer WSSe. (h) Correlation of

e 33

(left) and

d 33

(right) of multilayer MXY structure with Δr, X=Mo, W; Y=S, Se, Te. (a) Reproduced from Ref. [80]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. (b) Reproduced from Ref. [14]. Copyright © 2016, Wiley-VCH. (c, d) Reproduced from Ref. [82]. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society. (e) Reproduced from Ref. [84]. Copyright © 2017, Springer Nature. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [85]. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society. (g) Reproduced from Ref. [86]. Copyright © 2018, American Physical Society. (h) Reproduced from Ref. [87]. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society.

Fig.5 Carrier concentration doping engineering of 2D TMDs. (a) Schematic structure of the 2D semi-floating gate memory. The 2D materials WSe₂, h-BN and HfS₂ serve as the channel, blocking layer and the floating gate. In addition, the inserted MoS₂ layer and the WSe₂ channel form the p−n−junction switch. (b) Cross-section view of the experimental scheme for electron-beam doping in BN-encapsulated ML MoS₂ transistor device with multilayer graphene contacts. (c) Source-drain current

I D S

change in ML MoS₂ when a 1 keV electron beam is switched on and off with

V G

set to 0 V. (d)

I D S

(

V G

) of ML MoS₂ before and after electron beam exposure. (e) Schematic band diagram of a WSe₂ p−n homojunction derived from a ferroelectric-pattern-assisted BFO layer. (f) A schematic of the periodic MoTe₂ lateral p−n−p−n homojunction tuned using ferroelectric domains. Insert: Ferroelectric domains of P(VDF-TrFE) locally manipulated by the voltage applied to the probe. (g) A schematic illustration of the optoelectronic memory fabricated by transferring WSe₂ flake on BN flake. Insert: optical image of the WSe₂−BN heterostructure. (h) Lattice constant in different positions while the outermost S atoms are substituted by Se atoms (left). The relations between the occupation of the substituted Se atoms, lattice constant, and substitution barrier (right). (a) Reproduced from Ref. [88]. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (b−d) Reproduced from Ref. [89]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. (e) Reproduced from Ref. [90]. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [91]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. (g) Reproduced from Ref. [93]. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (h) Reproduced from Ref. [96]. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society.

Fig.6 Alloy engineering of 2D TMDs. (a) Illustration of experimental setup of CVD for W_xMo_1−xS₂ flake. (b) Optical image of triangular W_xMo_1−xS₂ flake (size ≈ 20 μm). The thickness of the as-grown W_xMo_1−xS₂ was measured by AFM to be ≈ 0.94 nm. (c) Raman intensity mapping at a frequency of ≈ 408

c m − 1

(out-of-plane A_1g mode) for the flake. (d, e) EDX mapping of (d) W and (e) Mo elements. The scale bar in (b−e) is 10 μm. (f) SEM images of MoSe_2xS_2(1−x) alloys grown at the same time but at different temperatures and MoO₃ precursor concentrations on substrates at different locations. (g) Optical images of monolayer quaternary alloys Mo_xW_1−xS_2ySe_2(1−y) grown at (i) 650 °C, (ii) 700 °C, (iii) 750 °C, and (iv) 800 °C. Scale bars: (i−iii) 5 μm, (iv) 2 μm. (a−e) Reproduced from Ref. [97]. Copyright © 2017, Wiley-VCH. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [15]. Copyright © 2016, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (g) Reproduced from Ref. [105]. Copyright © 2017, Wiley-VCH.

Fig.7 Vertical heterostructures of 2D TMDs. (a) Schematic images of the vertically stacked and in-plane WS₂/MoS₂ heterostructures synthesized at different temperatures. (b) Optical microscope images of

C d I 2

nanoplates and vertical heterostructures grown on other 2D TMDs (WS₂, WSe₂, MoS₂). (c) Illustration of a Mott insulator state in a WSe₂/WS₂ moiré superlattice (green and orange layers) with one hole (red holes) per superlattice unit cell. (d) Illustrations of generalized Wigner crystal (

n = n 0 / 3

n = 2 n 0 / 3

) and Mott insulator stated (

n = n 0

) in a WSe₂/WS₂ moiré superlattice. (a) Reproduced from Ref. [22]. Copyright © 2014, Springer Nature. (b) Reproduced from Ref. [112]. Copyright © 2017, American Chemical Society. (c, d) Reproduced from Ref. [118]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature.

Fig.8 Lateral heterostructures of 2D TMDs. (a) Schematic illustration of experimental one-step APCVD setup of lateral heterostructure of MoX₂/WX₂ (X = S, Se). (b) High resolution STEM HAADF image of hetero-interface of the MoX₂/WX₂ lateral heterostructure (X = S, Se). (c) Schematic illustration of experimental two-step CVD setup of lateral heterostructure of WS₂/MoS₂ heterostructures. (d) Atomic scale HADDF image of the interface in the triangular bilayer WS₂/MoS₂ heterostructure. The inset shows the intensity profile along the arrow line crossing the interface. (e) Low-magnification ADF-STEM image showing the edge area of the monolayer GaSe/MoSe₂ lateral heterostructures. (f) Atomic resolution STEM image taken from the epitaxial Sn_xMo_1−xS₂/MoS₂ heterostructure at the interface. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [123]. Copyright © 2015, American Chemical Society. (c, d) Reproduced from Ref. [128]. Copyright © 2019, Wiley-VCH. (e) Reproduced from Ref. [133]. Copyright © 2016, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [126]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH.

Fig.9 2D TMDs for field-effect transistors. (a) Optical image of a 9 nm CVD PdSe₂ device with 8 electrodes. (b) Electron mobility of the device in (a) along 8 directions evenly spaced plotted in polar coordinates after the third annealing at 450 K. (c) Schematic of 1D2D-FET with a MoS₂ channel and SWCNT gate. (d) Schematic of side-wall gate structure with a monolayer MoS₂ channel and 0.34 nm monolayer graphene edge gate. (e) The maximum On/Off ratio and minimum SS value extracted from the 10 typical devices. (f) Schematic of a chemically synthesized 1T′/2H-MoTe₂ FET with a CNT gate. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [142]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH. (c) Reproduced from Ref. [1]. Copyright © 2016, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d, e) Reproduced from Ref. [149]. Copyright © 2022, Springer Nature. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [151]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature.

Fig.10 2D TMDs for volatile electronic memory devices. (a) Wafer-scale MoS₂ continuous films are batch-synthesized by a CVD method. (b) 3D schematic illustration of a 2T-1C cell containing two MoS₂ FETs and one capacitor. (c) Demonstration of multi-step

V x

(top) and

I d

(bottom) operation using two 2T-1C cells. (d) Recognition rate in fully connected neural network simulation as a function of training epoch (0−100), using 4000 images for training and 1000 images for testing. (a−d) Reproduced from Ref. [159]. Copyright © 2021, Springer Nature.

Fig.11 2D TMDs for nonvolatile electronic memory devices. (a) Schematic structure of the device with a MoS₂/MoTe₂ heterojunction as a channel at the top, h-BN as a dielectric layer in the middle, and grapheme (Gr) as a gate electrode at the bottom. The source electrode (the contact connected to MoS₂) is grounded. (b) The program (P, black curve) and erase (E, red) states of the device after applying a ±15 V back-gate pulse with 2 s duration. (c) Schematic of the device structure and corresponding energy band diagram of the MoTe₂/BN heterostructure under photodoping. The red and blue circles represent the positive charges and electrons.

E C B N

and

E V B N

represent the minimum energy of conduction band and the maximum energy of valance band of BN. (d) Plot of electron concentration and mobility with respect to the retention time. (e) Schematic of a MoS₂ memtransistor device built on 300-nm-thick thermal

S i O 2

on doped Si (gate). (f)

I D

−

V D

curve of a MoS₂ memtransistor (L = 5 μm, W = 100 μm) at gate bias

V G

= 10 V. (g) Optical image of Cu/MoS₂ double-layer/Au memristor with the scale bar of 100 μm (left) and schematic illustration (right). The memristor’s crossbar area is 2 × 2 µm². (h) Measured conductance change (black) and amplitude of V_eff (red) as functions of Δt. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [25]. Copyright 2018, Springer Nature. (c, d) Reproduced from Ref. [164]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. (e, f) Reproduced from Ref. [167]. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (g, h) Reproduced from Ref. [168]. Copyright © 2019, American Chemical Society.

Fig.12 2D TMDs for photodetectors. (a) Schematic diagram of a MoTe₂/MoS₂ vdW heterostructure device under infrared light excitation. (b) Schematic illustrations of type-II interband excitation processes in MoTe₂/MoS₂ vdW heterostructures. The value of interband gap (Δ) is obtained by theoretical calculation. (c) Optical Microscopy image (upper panel) and schematic illustration (bottom panel) of the WSe₂/SnSe₂ heterojunction device. (d) The calculated responsivity on the light power. (e) Schematic diagram of device structure based on CdTe/PtSe₂ heterostructures. (f) Time-dependent photoresponse of the CdTe/PtSe₂ heterojunction photodetector under different bias voltages. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [170]. Copyright © 2016, American Chemical Society. (c) Reproduced from Ref. [171]. Copyright © 2019, The Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) Reproduced from Ref. [172]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. (e, f) Reproduced from Ref. [173]. Copyright © 2018, American Chemical Society.

Fig.13 2D TMDs for bulk photovoltaic effect (BPVE). (a) Schematic illustrations of photovoltaic effect in traditional p−n junction and BPVE in non-centrosymmetric monolayer crystals. (b) Dependence of

I s c

P l a s e r

for three different wavelengths. The black dashed lines are guides to the eye. The bottom right inset illustrates possible excitation paths from the valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB) for each wavelength, using the same colour scheme as the data points. Inset, optical micrograph of the device. (c) The BPVE in various materials. (d) Schematic illustrations of heterointerface of WSe₂/BP (left) and the experiment device (right). (e) I−V characteristic of the WSe₂/BP device. (f) I−V characteristic of the MoS₂-based device under laser (532 nm) illumination at spot 1 (Laser@1) and 2 (Laser@2) and without illumination (Dark). Inset: A schematic of the cross-sectional view of the device. (g) Short-circuit current density

j s c

versus incident power density in reported non-centrosymmetric materials. (a−c) Reproduced from Ref. [178]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature. (d, e) Reproduced from Ref. [179]. Copyright © 2021, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (f, g) Reproduced from Ref. [180]. Copyright © 2021, Springer Nature.

Fig.14 2D TMDs for optoelectronic memory devices. (a) Schematic of infrared memory device based on few-layer MoS₂/PbS nanoplates heterostructure as channel. (b) Schematic structure of the device based on MoS_2xSe_2(1−x) alloys. (c) Photoresponse time of the electro-(left panel) and photo-excitation (right panel) process. The laser wavelength is 1550 nm. (d) Retention performance of two memory states after electrically programming and optically erasing. (e) Schematic showing the generation, storage, and release of photocarriers stored in the ISCR in the WSe₂-Q2DEG vdW heterostructure for the optical charging and discharging. (f) I−V loops measured in darkness 2min later and 7 days later. Inset: I−V curves without and after optical illumination. (a) Reproduced from Ref. [181]. Copyright © 2018, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (b−d) Reproduced from Ref. [182]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature. (e, f) Reproduced from Ref. [184]. Copyright © 2021, American Physics Society.

Fig.15 2D TMDs for FeFETs. (a) 3D schematic diagram of the ferroelectric vdWHs device with MoS₂ as channel material, h-BN as insulating layer, and CIPS as ferroelectric dielectric layer. (b) The transfer characteristic curves of the ferroelectric vdWHs device under different back gate voltage ranges, ±20 to ±80V, step: 10 V;

V D S

= 50 mV. (c) Schematic diagram of the MoS₂-based FeFET configuration. (d) Transfer characteristic curves of the FeFETs at various

V D S

from 0.02 to 0.1 V. (e) Schematic of MoS₂ NC-FETs. (f) SS values plot extracted from experimental data and simulated results to show the dependence with temperature. The error bars are the statistical analyses for 10 MoS₂ NC-FETs with the same device geometry. (g, h) Hysteretic behavior of electrical conductivity

G D S

of marginally twisted MoS₂ as a function of top-gate electric field

E t

for different back-gate electric fields (

E b

). The shown curves are for 1L MoS₂ on top of 1 L MoS₂ at 350 K (f) and 3L/3L MoS₂ at room temperature (g) twisted by 0° to achieve the 3R interface. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [190]. Copyright © 2020, Wiley-VCH. (c, d) Reproduced from Ref. [191]. Copyright © 2021, Wiley-VCH. (e, f) Reproduced from Ref. [193]. Copyright © 2018, Wiley-VCH. (g, h) Reproduced from Ref. [197]. Copyright © 2022, Springer Nature.

Fig.16 2D TMDs for FTJs. (a) Schematic illustration of polarized-induced changes in the band structure of the MoS₂-BTO-SRO heterojunction. (b) The reading bias dependence of the

R O F F

-to-

R O N

ratio, where

R O N

and

R O F F

resistances correspond to the polarization states completely switched with the downward and upward direction. (c) Dependence of the

R O F F

-to-

R O N

ratio on the area of domains with the downward polarization(ON state) normalized to the total area of the MoS₂ flake. (d) Local PFM phase and amplitude hysteresis loops acquired on the MoS₂/HZO/W heterojunction. (e) A remanent P−V loop measured in a W-org/

MoS 2

Fig.17 2D TMDs for sFETs. (a) Colored scanning electron microscope image of a fabricated device with a CVD graphene/MoS₂ heterostructure channel, Si/

SiO 2

substrate as a gate electrode for control of the spin polarization in the channel, and multiple FM tunnel contacts of

TiO 2

(1 nm)/Co(80 nm). (b) Modulation of spin-valve signal magnitude ΔR_NL with gate voltage V_g, showing ON/OFF states at 300 K. (c) Enhanced-contrast optical image comprising one graphene/WS₂ heterostructure device and two reference graphene devices enclosing it. (d, e) Δ

R n l

versus B for a graphene/WS₂ heterostructure device and a reference device (without WS₂). (f) Tunnel conductance of a TFET with a four-layer CrI₃ tunnel barrier under a constant magnetic bias of 1.77 T. A change of ~400% is seen in the tunnel conductance. (a, b) Reproduced from Ref. [31]. Copyright © 2017, Springer Nature. (c−e) Reproduced from Ref. [211]. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (f) Reproduced from Ref. [215]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature.

Fig.18 2D TMDs for MTJs. (a) Schematic diagram of the FGT/MoS₂/FGT spin valve encapsulated by a top h-BN capping layer (~50 nm thick). (b) I−V curves of the FGT/MoS₂/FGT heterojunction at some representative temperatures. The R−T curve and optical image are displayed in the upper-left and bottom-right corner, respectively. (c) MR and spin polarization P as a function of temperature. The curve presents the fitting result according to Bloch’s law. (d) MR versus bias current. The red line is not the fitting but guides the eye. (a−d) Reproduced from Ref. [216]. Copyright © 2020, American Chemical Society.

Fig.19 2D TMDs for spin-polarized LEDs. (a) Schematic of electronic structure at the K and K′ valleys of monolayer TMD and valley polarization via spin injection. (b) Schematic of the monolayer TMD/(Ga, Mn)As heterojunction for electrical valley polarization devices. (Ga, Mn)As was used as a pin aligner under an external magnetic field. (c, d) Spectra of σ⁻ and σ⁺ resolved electroluminescence polarized under an outward (c) or inward (d) magnetic field of 400 Oe perpendicular to the surface with a current of 15 μA. Inset: Schematic representation of electrical excitation and emission processes. (e) Schematic depicting spin-dependent charge transfer in monolayer

WSe 2

and trilayer CrI₃ vdW heterostructure. (f) Polarization-resolved photoluminescence of a

WSe 2

/trilayer CrI₃ vdW heterostructure at 15 K and zero magnetic field, showing spontaneously σ⁺ polarized photoluminescence. (g) Schematic structure of TMD EDLT under ambipolar charge accumulation (top) and band structure of EDLT-induced p−i−n junction under equilibrium (bottom). (h) Top: Circularly polarized EL spectra for two opposite current directions. Bottom: Illustrations of EL intensity contributed from two valleys. (a−d) Reproduced from Ref. [220]. Copyright © 2016, Springer Nature. (e, f) Reproduced from Ref. [221]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. (g, h) Reproduced from Ref. [223]. Copyright © 2014, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Fig.20 2D TMDs for valleytronic transistors. (a) Side-view illustration of the

WSe 2

WS 2

heterostructure device. (b) Extracted hole diffusion constant (red) and mobility (blue) show a strong dependence on the initial hole concentration. (c) Decay dynamics of the total excess hole density at different initial carrier concentrations. The decay lifetime is longest near charge neutrality and decreases with both electron doping (positive carrier concentration) and hole doping (negative carrier concentration). (d) Schematics and operation mechanism of the valleytronic device. The device comprises a standard

MoS 2

transistor, two lateral Hall probes and a purposely aligned chiral plasmonic antennae array. (e) Statistics of the measured valley Hall voltage in ten devices for drift (top panel) and diffusive (bottom panel) transport. (f) Hall voltage as a function of gate voltage

V g

V d s

= 0 V. (g) Experimental setup of the Hall measurement in

MoS 2

WSe 2

heterostructure. (h) Observation of VHE at room temperature. The black, red and blue symbols are the measured difference between the Hall voltage under right- and left-circular polarization (R−L), under left- and right-circular polarization (L−R) and under horizontal and vertical polarization (H−V), respectively. The lines are linear fits. (i) Linear fitting of

V P C

versus

V y

= −8 V (black line) and

V g

= −19 V (red line) at 240 K. (a−c) Reproduced from Ref. [231]. Copyright © 2018, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (d−f) Reproduced from Ref. [233]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. (g−i) Reproduced from Ref. [234]. Copyright © 2021, Springer Nature.

Fig.21 2D TMDs for valley-photodetectors. (a) Illustration of optical spin injection, lateral spin transport, and electrical spin detection in a monolayer

MoS 2

/few-layer graphene hybrid spin valve structure. Inset: Expected signal

V N L

as a function of applied magnetic field B_y. (b) Electrical spin signal

V N L

as a function of

B y

exhibits clear antisymmetric Hanle spin precession signals which flip polarity with the Co magnetization direction (M⁺ vs. M⁻). (c) Schematic representation of the non-local measurement in

WSe 2

/graphene/Bi₂Se₃ heterostructures. (d, e) Schematic diagrams of the local helicity-dependent photocurrent in

WSe 2

(a) and non-local helicity-dependent photocurrent in

WSe 2

/graphene/Bi₂Se₃ heterostructures. (f) Optically generated polarization degree P as a function of

V g

for the local and non-local CPGE measurement at

V d

Fig.22 2D TMDs for physico-chemical applications. (a) Long-term cycling performance of Li-S battery with the 3D CNT-S cathode (~33 wt% S content) and the

MoS 2

-coated Li anode measured at 0.5 C for 1200 cycles. (b) HER catalytic activities for different TMDs and Pt measured in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ with a scan rate of 5 mV·s⁻¹. (c, d) Schematic of self-limiting climb (c) and drive (d) stage growth mechanism of Mo

S 2

nanograin films. (e) Polarization curves of the current density of the

MoS 2

devices. The window size is ~80 μm² for each device. (f) Schematic illustration of inkjet-printed Ti₃C₂T_x/WSe₂ gas sensors in detection of volatile organic compounds with a wireless monitoring system. (g) Selectivity sensing test of the pristine Ti₃C₂T_x and Ti₃C₂T_x/WSe₂ sensors upon exposure to various volatile organic compounds at 40 ppm. (a) Reproduced from Ref. [252]. Copyright © 2018, Springer Nature. (b) Reproduced from Ref. [253]. Copyright © 2019, Springer Nature. (c−e) Reproduced from Ref. [255]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature. (f, g) Reproduced from Ref. [256]. Copyright © 2020, Springer Nature.

Fig.23 Schematic representation summarizing the review contents (from crystal growth via CVD method to modulation and construction, and further to 2D TMD based heterostructures, as well as their device applications in various fields).

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