Unclear biological fate hampers the clinical translation of nanoparticles for biomedical uses. In recent years, it is documented that the formation of protein corona upon nanoparticles is a critical factor leading to the ambiguous biological fate. Efforts have been made to explore the protein corona forming behaviors on nanoparticles, and rearrangement of the relevant studies will help to understand the current trend of such a topic. In this work, the publications about protein corona of nanoparticles in Science Citation Index Expanded database of Web of Science from 2007 to 2020 (1417 in total) were analyzed in detail, and the bibliometrics landscape of them was showcased. The basic bibliometrics characteristics were summarized to provide an overall understanding. Citation analysis was performed to scrutinize the peer interests of these papers. The research hotspots in the field were evaluated, based on which some feasible topics for future studies were proposed. In general, the results demonstrated that protein corona of nanoparticles was a prospective research area, and had attracted global research interests. It was believed that this work could comprehensively highlight the bibliometrics landscape, inspire further exploitation on protein corona of nanoparticles, and ultimately promote the clinical translation of nanoparticles.

Regarding the increasing number of cancer patients, the global burden of this disease is continuing to grow. Despite a considerable improvement in the diagnosis and treatment of various types of cancer, new diagnosis and treatment strategies are required. Nanotechnology, as an interesting and advanced field in medicine, is aimed to further advance both cancer diagnosis and treatment. Gold nanocages (AuNCs), with hollow interiors and porous walls, have received a great deal of interest in various biomedical applications such as diagnosis, imaging, drug delivery, and hyperthermia therapy due to their special physicochemical characteristics including the porous structure and surface functionalization as well as optical and photothermal properties. This review is focused on recent developments in therapeutic and diagnostic and applications of AuNCs with an emphasis on their theranostic applications in cancer diseases.

Chemical vapor deposited (CVD) diamond as a burgeoning multi-functional material with tailored quality and characteristics can be artificially synthesized and controlled for various applications. Correspondingly, the application-related “grade” concept associated with materials choice and design was gradually formulated, of which the availability and the performance are optimally suited. In this review, the explicit diversity of CVD diamond and the clarification of typical grades for applications, i.e., from resplendent gem-grade to promising quantum-grade, were systematically summarized and discussed, according to the crystal quality and main consideration of ubiquitous nitrogen impurity content as well as major applications. Realizations of those, from quantum-grade with near-ideal crystal to electronic-grade having extremely low imperfections and then to optical, thermal as well as mechanical-grade needing controlled flaws and allowable impurities, would competently fulfill the multi-field application prospects with appropriate choice in terms of cost and quality. Exceptionally, wide range defects and impurities in the gem-grade diamond (only indicating single crystal), which are detrimental for technology applications, endows CVD crystals with fancy colors to challenge their natural counterparts.

High fluorescence quantum yield (QY), excellent fluorescence stability, and low toxicity are essential for a good cellular imaging fluorescent probe. Green-emissive carbon quantum dots (CQDs) with many advantages, such as unique fluorescence properties, anti-photobleaching, low toxicity, fine biocompatibility and high penetration depth in tissues, have been considered as a potential candidate in cell imaging fluorescent probes. Herein, N, S-codoped green-emissive CQDs (QY= 64.03%) were synthesized by the one-step hydrothermal method, with m-phenylenediamine as the carbon and nitrogen source, and L-cysteine as the nitrogen and sulfur dopant, under the optimum condition of 200 °C reaction for 2 h. Their luminescence was found to originate from the surface state. In light of the satisfactory photobleaching resistance and the low cytotoxicity, CQDs were used as a cell imaging probe for HeLa cell imaging. The results clearly indicate that cells can be labeled with CQDs, which can not only enter the cytoplasm, but also enter the nucleus through the nuclear pore, showing their broad application prospect in the field of cell imaging.

A reliable and efficient solution to the current energy crisis and its associated environmental issues is provided by fuel cells, metal–air batteries and overall water splitting. The heart reactions for these technologies are oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Different supporters such as graphene, carbon nanotube, and graphitic carbon nitride have been used to avoid agglomeration of active materials and provide maximum active surface for these reactions. Among all the supporters, boron nitride (BN) gains extensive research attention due to its analogue with graphene and excellent stability with good oxidation and chemical inertness. In this mini-review, the well-known strategies (exfoliation, annealing, and CVD) used in the synthesis of BN with different morphologies for HER, OER and ORR applications have been briefly debated and summarized. The comparative analysis determines that the performance and stability of state-of-the-art electrocatalysts can be further boosted if they are deposited on BN. It is revealed that BN-based catalysts for HER, OER and ORR are rarely studied yet especially with non-noble transition metals, and this research direction should be studied deeply in future for practical applications.

Filled skutterudite is currently one of the most promising intermediate-temperature thermoelectric (TE) materials, having good thermoelectric transport performance and excellent mechanical properties. For the preparation of high-efficiency filled skutterudite TE devices, it is important to have p- and n-type filled skutterudite TE materials with matching performance. However, the current TE properties of p-type Fe-based filled skutterudite materials are worse than n-type filled skutterudite materials. Therefore, how to obtain high-performance p-type Fe-based filled skutterudite materials is the key to preparation of high-efficiency skutterudite-based TE devices. This review summarizes some methods for optimizing the thermal transport performance of p-type filled skutterudite materials at the atomic-molecular and nano-mesoscopic scale that have been used in recent years. These methods include doping, multi-atom filling, and use of low-dimensional structure and of nanocomposite. In addition, the synergistic optimization methods of the electrical and thermal transport parameters and advanced preparation technologies of p-type filled skutterudite materials in recent years are also briefly summarized. These optimizational methods and advanced preparation technologies can significantly improve the TE properties of p-type Fe-based filled skutterudite materials.

Porosity parameters are one of the structural properties of the extracellular microenvironment that have been shown to have a great impact on the cellular phenotype and various biological activities such as diffusion of fluid, initial protein adsorption, permeability, cell penetration and migration, ECM deposition, angiogenesis, and rate and pattern of new tissue formation. The heterogeneity of the study protocols and research methodologies do not allow reliable meta-analysis for definite findings. As such, despite the huge available literature, no generally accepted consensus is defined for the porosity requirements of specific tissue engineering applications. However, based on the biomimetic approach, the biological substitutes should replicate the 3D local microenvironment of the recipient site with matching porosity parameters to best support local cells during tissue regeneration. Ideally, the porosity of biomaterials should mimic the porosity of the substituting natural tissue and match the clinical requirements. Careful analysis of the impact of architectures (i.e., porosity) on biophysical, biochemical, and biological behaviors will support designing smart biomaterials with customized architectural and functional properties that are patient and defect site-specific.

The synergistic effect of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and poly(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine) (PMPC) can effectively reduce the protein absorption, which is beneficial to theranostics. However, PEG–PMPC-based polymers have rarely been used as nanocarriers in the theranostic field due to their limited modifiability and weak interaction with other materials. Herein, a plain method was proposed to endow them with the probable ability of loading small active agents, and the relationship between the structure and the ability of loading hydrophobic agents was explored, thus expanding their applications. Firstly, mPEG–PMPC or 4-arm-PEG–PMPC polymer was synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using mPEG-Br or 4-arm-PEG-Br as the macroinitiator. Then a strong hydrophobic segment, poly(butyl methacrylate) (PBMA), was introduced and the ability to load small hydrophobic agents was further explored. The results showed that linear mPEG–PMPC–PBMA could form micelles 50–80 nm in size and load the hydrophobic agent such as Nile red efficiently. In contrast, star-like 4-arm-PEG–PMPC–PBMA, a monomolecular micelle (10–20 nm), could hardly load any hydrophobic agent. This work highlights effective strategies for engineering PEG–PMPC-based polymers and may facilitate the further application in numerous fields.

The design and development of multifunctional nano-drug delivery systems (NDDSs) is a solution that is expected to solve some intractable problems in traditional cancer treatment. In particular, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are novel hybrid porous nanomaterials which are constructed by the coordination of metal cations or clusters and organic bridging ligands. Benefiting from their intrinsic superior properties, MOFs have captivated intensive attentions in drug release and cancer theranostic. Based on what has been achieved about MOF-based DDSs in recent years, this review introduces different stimuli-responsive mechanisms of them and their applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment systematically. Moreover, the existing challenges and future opportunities in this field are summarized. By realizing industrial production and paying attention to biosafety, their clinical applications will be enriched.

Wearable gas sensors can improve early warning provision for workers in special worksites and can also be used as flexible electronic platforms. Here, the flexible multifunctional gas sensor was prepared by grafting graphene oxide (GO)-Ag onto cotton fabric after swelling. The maximum bacterial inhibition rate of GO-150/cotton fabric was 95.6% for E. coli and 87.6% for S. aureus, while retaining the original high moisture permeability of cotton fabric. So GO/cotton fabric can resist the multiplication of bacteria. At the same time, GO can greatly improve the UV protection performance of cotton fabric used in garments. With increase of the GO concentration, the UV protection ability of composite fabric is enhanced. Finally, GO-Ag/cotton fabric sensors had stable NH₃ gas-sensitive properties and good washing stability. In conclusion, these cotton fabric sensors with antibacterial properties, UV resistance and highly sensitive gas-sensitive properties have potential applications in wearable early warning devices and textile products.

Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs), relative to existing antibacterial agents, are more effective, less toxic and more economical, and have shown enormous potential for the nanomedicine application. In this work, we report a ‘green’ method for the rapid and efficient synthesis of Ag NPs using Ginkgo biloba extracts as reducing agent and capping agent. The properties of Ag NPs against fungi and bacteria were investigated. The results showed that the Ginkgo biloba extracts are crucial for the preparation of uniform and monodispersed Ag NPs. The prepared Ag NPs exhibited remarkable antibacterial activities. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of Ag NPs for Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were 0.044 and 0.088 μg·mL⁻¹, respectively. Moreover, Ag NPs exhibited excellent bactericidal performance against MDR-Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It was found that the effect of the antibacterial activity of Ag NPs on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus was tightly related to the reactive oxygen species accumulation. This research provides guidelines for the efficient green synthesis of Ag NPs and its antibacterial applications.

Currently, δ-MnO₂ is one of the popularly studied cathode materials for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) but impeded by the sluggish kinetics of Zn²⁺ and the Mn cathode dissolution. Here, we report our discovery in the study of crystalline/amorphous MnO₂ (disordered MnO₂), prepared by a simple redox reaction in the order/disorder engineering. This disordered MnO₂ cathode material, having open framework with more active sites and more stable structure, shows improved electrochemical performance in 2 mol·L⁻¹ ZnSO₄/0.1 mol·L⁻¹ MnSO₄ aqueous electrolyte. It delivers an ultrahigh discharge specific capacity of 636 mA·h·g⁻¹ at 0.1 A·g⁻¹ and remains a large discharge capacity of 216 mA·h·g⁻¹ even at a high current density of 1 A·g⁻¹ after 400 cycles. Hence disordered MnO₂ could be a promising cathode material for aqueous ZIBs. The storage mechanism of the disordered MnO₂ electrode is also systematically investigated by structural and morphological examinations of ex situ, ultimately proving that the mechanism is the same as that of the δ-MnO₂ electrode. This work may pave the way for the possibility of using the order/disorder engineering to introduce novel properties in electrode materials for high-performance aqueous ZIBs.

The wastewater treatment is a challenging research area to reduce the increasing pressure on limited fresh water resources. Amongst several techniques adopted and practiced, adsorption is one of the most effective and sustainable eco-friendly processes. In recent years, MXene nanomaterials, a new family of transition metal carbides, have gained increasing attention as the potential adsorbent for pollutants due to their unique features such as large surface area with abundant active sites and hydrophilicity. A wide range of pollutants viz. heavy metal ions, organic dyes, radionuclides, and toxic gas molecules have been sensed by 2D MXenes. An inclusive understanding on the adsorptive behavior of MXene-based materials is needed to explain the removal mechanism and effects of different adsorption parameters. This review gives a general overview on recent research progress on MXene materials with special reference to their applications for the adsorptive removal of different pollutants. The general trends in the synthesis of MXenes, their stability and different factors affecting the adsorption process along with the main challenges in understanding the full potential of MXenes for environmental applications are discussed.

A sea-urchin-like CuO/ZnO porous nanostructure is obtained via a simple solution method followed by a calcination process. There are abundant pores among the resulting nanowires due to the thermal decomposition of copper–zinc hydroxide carbonate. The specific surface area of the as-prepared CuO/ZnO sample is determined as 31.3 m²·g⁻¹. The gas-sensing performance of the sea-urchin-like CuO/ZnO sensor is studied by exposure to volatile organic compound (VOC) vapors. With contrast to a pure porous sea-urchin-like ZnO sensor, the sea-urchin-like CuO/ZnO sensor shows superior gas-sensing behavior for acetone, formaldehyde, methanol, toluene, isopropanol and ethanol. It exhibits a high response of 52.6–100 ppm acetone vapor, with short response/recovery time. This superior sensing behavior is mainly ascribed to the porous nanowire-assembled structure with abundant p–n heterojunctions.

Transformation texture is normally different to deformation and recrystallization textures, thus influencing materials properties differently. As deformation and recrystallization are often inseparable to transformation in materials which shows a variety in types such as diffusional or non-diffusional transformations, different phenomena or rules of strengthening transformation textures occur. This paper summarizes the complicated phenomena and rules by comparison of a lot of authors’ published and unpublished data collected from mainly electrical steels, high manganese steels and pure titanium sheets. Three kinds of influencing deformation are identified, namely the dynamic transformation with concurrent deformation and transformation, the transformation preceded by deformation and recrystallization and the surface effect induced transformation, and the textures related with them develop in different mechanisms. It is stressed that surface effect induced transformation is particularly effective to enhance transformation texture. It is also shown that the materials properties are also improved by controlled transformation textures, in particular in electrical steels. It is hoped that these phenomena and processing techniques are beneficial to the establishment of transformation texture theory and property improvement in practice.

Developing chemotherapy drugs with high efficacy and few side effects has been a bottleneck problem that requires an efficient solution. The active cancer treatment ingredient disulfiram (DSF), inspired by the copper(II) diethyldithiocarbamate complex (CuET), can be used in a one-pot synthesis method to construct a CuET delivery nanosystem (CuET-ZIF_Cu@HA). Due to the high biocompatibility, targeting of CD44 overexpressed cancer cells, and acid response of zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF) materials of hyaluronic acid (HA), we realized that CuET-ZIF_Cu@HA could become an effective and highly selective cancer treatment. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments have demonstrated that CuET-ZIF_Cu@HA has robust anti-tumor properties without evident side effects. This research provided a promising strategy for DSF nanosystems that involves simple preparation and high efficacy, both of which are key to reusing DSF in cancer treatment.

Research on glass nanocomposites (GNCs) has been very active in the past decades. GNCs have attracted — and still do — great interest in the fields of optoelectronics, photonics, sensing, electrochemistry, catalysis, biomedicine, and art. In this review, the potential applications of GNCs in these fields are briefly described to show the reader the possibilities of these materials. The most important synthesis methods of GNCs (melt-quenching, sol-gel, ion implantation, ion-exchange, staining process, spark plasma sintering, radio frequency sputtering, spray pyrolysis, and chemical vapor deposition techniques) are extensively explained. The major aim of this review is to systematize our knowledge about the synthesis of GNCs and to explore the mechanisms of formation and growth of NPs within glass matrices. The size-controlled preparation of NPs within glass matrices, which remains a challenge, is essential for advanced applications. Therefore, a thorough understanding of GNC synthesis techniques is expected to facilitate the preparation of innovative GNCs.

In this work, a high-performance fiber strain sensor is fabricated by constructing a double percolated structure, consisting of carbon nanotube (CNT)/thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) continuous phase and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) phase, incompatible with TPU (CNT/TPU@SBS). Compared with other similar fiber strain sensor systems without double percolated structure, the CNT/TPU@SBS sensor achieves a lower percolation threshold (0.38 wt.%) and higher electrical conductivity. The conductivity of 1%-CNT/TPU@SBS (4.12×10⁻³ S·m⁻¹) is two orders of magnitude higher than that of 1%-CNT/TPU (3.17×10⁻⁵ S·m⁻¹) at the same CNT loading of 1 wt.%. Due to double percolated structure, the 1%-CNT/TPU@SBS sensor exhibits a wide strain detection range (0.2%–100%) and an ultra-high sensitivity (maximum gauge factor (GF) is 32411 at 100% strain). Besides, the 1%-CNT/TPU@SBS sensor shows a high linearity (R² = 0.97) at 0%–20% strain, relatively fast response time (214 ms), and stability (500 loading/unloading cycles). The designed sensor can efficiently monitor physiological signals and movements and identify load distribution after being woven into a sensor array, showing broad application prospects in wearable electronics.

Adsorption of drug powder is caused by triboelectrification on the surface of starch capsule during filling process. Furthermore, high wear rate and poor water lubricity also hinder the further practical applications of traditional starch capsule. To solve these problems, a glycerol-modified starch capsule with perfect anti-triboelectrification and enhanced lubrication performance was fabricated. Hydrogen bond between glycerol and starch molecules could reduce the bound water content on the capsule surface and thus realizes anti-triboelectrification. By adding glycerol, a three-tier structure composed of starch-glycerol-water is formed through hydrogen bonding on the surface of the starch film, which has been proven to be favorable for lubrication performance. When 5% glycerol is added, the short-circuit current (I_sc) of starch-based triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) is reduced by 86%, and the wear volume of the starch film is reduced by 89%. Under water lubrication condition, the lubrication performance of the starch-glycerol film can reach the super lubricated level with a friction coefficient of about 0.005. This work provides a new route to obtain modified starch capsules with improved anti-triboelectrification property, reduced wear rate and superlubricity property.

A hydrothermal deposition method was utilized to fabricate Ca-P composite coating induced by the layer-by-layer (LbL) assembled polyvinylpyrrolidone/deoxyribonucleic acid (PVP/DNA)₂₀ multilayer on AZ31 alloy. The surface morphology and compositions were characterized by SEM, EDS, FTIR and XRD. Besides, the corrosion resistance and degradation behavior of the coating were tested via electrochemical polarization, impedance spectroscopy and immersion measurements. Results show that the main components of Ca-P coatings are hydroxyapatite, Ca₃(PO₄)₂ and Mg₃(PO₄)₂·nH₂O. The LbL-assembled DNA and PVP promote the adsorption of Ca-P deposits on the sample surface, and structures and functional groups of the polyelectrolyte in the outermost layer are the primary influencing factor for the induction of the Ca-P coating. Carboxyl groups have the best biomineralization effect among all related functional groups. The enhanced corrosion resistance and adhesion highlight a promising use of (PVP/DNA)₂₀-induced Ca-P coatings in the field of biomedical magnesium alloys.

Recent advances in nanotechnology have attracted significant attention to nanodiamonds (NDs) in both industrial and research areas thanks to their remarkable intrinsic properties: large specific area, poor cytotoxicity, chemical resistance, magnetic and optical properties, ease of large-scale production, and surface reactivity make them suitable for numerous applications, including electronics, optics, sensors, polishing materials, and more recently, biological purposes. Growing interest in diamond platforms for bioimaging and chemotherapy is observed. Given the outstanding features of these particles and their ease of tuning, current and future applications in medicine have the potential to display innovative imaging applications and to be used as tools for monitoring and tracking drug delivery in vivo.

The consumer demand for emerging technologies such as augmented reality (AR), autopilot, and three-dimensional (3D) internet has rapidly promoted the application of novel optical display devices in innovative industries. However, the micro/nanomanufacturing of high-resolution optical display devices is the primary issue restricting their development. The manufacturing technology of micro/nanostructures, methods of display mechanisms, display materials, and mass production of display devices are major technical obstacles. To comprehensively understand the latest state-of-the-art and trigger new technological breakthroughs, this study reviews the recent research progress of master molds produced using nanoimprint technology for new optical devices, particularly AR glasses, new-generation light-emitting diode car lighting, and naked-eye 3D display mechanisms, and their manufacturing techniques of master molds. The focus is on the relationships among the manufacturing process, microstructure, and display of a new optical device. Nanoimprint master molds are reviewed for the manufacturing and application of new optical devices, and the challenges and prospects of the new optical device diffraction grating nanoimprint technology are discussed.

Conductive films have emerged as appealing electrode materials in flexible supercapacitors owing to their conductivity and mechanical flexibility. However, the unsatisfactory electrode structure induced poor output performance and undesirable cycling stability limited their application. Herein, a well-designed film was manufactured by the vacuum filtration and in-situ polymerization method from cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), and polypyrrole. The electrode presented an outstanding mechanical strength (21.3 MPa) and electrical conductivity (9.70 S·cm⁻¹). Meanwhile, the introduce of hydrophilic CNFs induced a desirable increase in diffusion path of electrons and ions, along with the synergistic effect among the three components, further endowed the electrode with excellent specific capacitance (0.734 F·cm⁻²) and good cycling stability (84.50% after 2000 charge/discharge cycles). More importantly, the flexible all-solid-state symmetric supercapacitor delivered a high specific capacitance (1.39 F·cm⁻² at 1 mA·cm⁻²) and a volumetric energy density (6.36 mW·h·cm⁻³ at the power density of 16.35 mW·cm⁻³). This work provided a method for preparing composite films with desired mechanical and electrochemical performance, which can broaden the high-value applications of nanocellulose.

Fabrication of elastic pressure sensors with low cost, high sensitivity, and mechanical durability is important for wearables, electronic skins and soft robotics. Here, we develop high-sensitivity porous elastomeric sensors for piezoresistive and capacitive pressure detection. Specifically, a porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sponge embedded with conductive fillers of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was fabricated by an in-situ sugar template strategy. The sensor demonstrates sensitive deformation to applied pressure, exhibiting large and fast response in resistance or capacitance for detection of a wide range of pressure (0‒5 kPa). PDMS, as a high-elasticity framework, enables creation of sensors with high sensitivity, excellent stability, and durability for long-term usage. The highest sensitivities of 22.1 and 68.3 kPa⁻¹ can be attained by devices with 5% CNTs and 4% rGO, respectively. The geometrics of the sponge sensor is tailorable using tableting technology for different applications. The sensors demonstrate finger motion detection and heart-rate monitoring in real-time, as well as a capacitive sensor array for identification of pressure and shape of placed objects, exhibiting good potential for wearables and human-machine interactions.

Considering its rapid lithiation/delithiation process and robust capacitive energy storage, hierarchical porous carbon is regarded as a promising candidate for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, it remains a great challenge to construct a porous structure and prevent structure stacking for carbon-based materials. Herein, a template-mediated approach is developed to synthesize hierarchical nitrogen–sulfur co-doped porous carbon (NSPC) using low-cost asphalt precursors. The strategy for synthesis uses g-C₃N₄ and NaHCO₃ as gaseous templates and NaCl as a solid template, which causes the formation of hierarchical porous carbon with a high specific surface area. The resultant porous structure and nitrogen-doping process can prevent the aggregation of nanosheets, maintain the structural stability upon cycling, and achieve rate-capable lithium storage. Serving as a LIBs anode, reversible specific capacities of the NSPC24 electrode reach 788 and 280 mAh·g^–1 at 0.1 and 1 A·g^–1, respectively. Furthermore, its specific capacity remains at 830 mAh·g^–1 after 115 cycles at 0.1 A·g^–1. Even after 500 cycles, high specific capacities of 727 mAh·g^–1 at 0.5 A·g^–1 and 624 mAh·g^–1 at 1 A·g^–1 are achieved, demonstrating excellent cycling performance. The gas–solid bifunctional template-mediated approach can guide the design of porous materials very well, meanwhile realizing the high value-added utilization of asphalt.

Nanotoxicology has become the subject of intense research for more than two decades. Thousands of articles have been published but the space in understanding the nanotoxicity mechanism and the assessment is still unclear. Recent researches clearly show potential benefits of nanomaterials (NMs) in diagnostics and treatment, targeted drug delivery, and tissue engineering owing to their excellent physicochemical properties. However, these NMs display hazardous health effect then to the greater part of the materials because of small size, large surface area-to-volume ratio, quantum size effects, and environmental factors. Nowadays, a large number of NMs are used in industrial products including several medical applications, consumer, and healthcare products. However, they came into the environment without any safety test. The measurement of toxicity level has become important because of increasing toxic effects on living organisms. New realistic mechanism-based strategies are still needed to determine the toxic effects of NMs. For the assessment of NMs toxicity, reliable and standardized procedures are necessary. This review article provides systematic studies on toxicity of NMs involving manufacturing, environmental factors, eco-toxic and genotoxic effects, some parameters which have been ignored of NMs versus their biological counterparts, cell heterogeneity, and their current challenges and future perspectives.